Rules of origin : from analysis to reform

General Introduction This thesis can be divided into two main parts :the first one, corresponding to the first three chapters, studies Rules of Origin (RoOs) in Preferential Trade Agreements (PTAs); the second part -the fourth chapter- is concerned with Anti-Dumping (AD) measures. Despite wide-ranging preferential access granted to developing countries by industrial ones under North-South Trade Agreements -whether reciprocal, like the Europe Agreements (EAs) or NAFTA, or not, such as the GSP, AGOA, or EBA-, it has been claimed that the benefits from improved market access keep falling short of the full potential benefits. RoOs are largely regarded as a primary cause of the under-utilization of improved market access of PTAs. RoOs are the rules that determine the eligibility of goods to preferential treatment. Their economic justification is to prevent trade deflection, i.e. to prevent non-preferred exporters from using the tariff preferences. However, they are complex, cost raising and cumbersome, and can be manipulated by organised special interest groups. As a result, RoOs can restrain trade beyond what it is needed to prevent trade deflection and hence restrict market access in a statistically significant and quantitatively large proportion. Part l In order to further our understanding of the effects of RoOs in PTAs, the first chapter, written with Pr. Olivier Cadot, Celine Carrère and Pr. Jaime de Melo, describes and evaluates the RoOs governing EU and US PTAs. It draws on utilization-rate data for Mexican exports to the US in 2001 and on similar data for ACP exports to the EU in 2002. The paper makes two contributions. First, we construct an R-index of restrictiveness of RoOs along the lines first proposed by Estevadeordal (2000) for NAFTA, modifying it and extending it for the EU's single-list (SL). This synthetic R-index is then used to compare Roos under NAFTA and PANEURO. The two main findings of the chapter are as follows. First, it shows, in the case of PANEURO, that the R-index is useful to summarize how countries are differently affected by the same set of RoOs because of their different export baskets to the EU. Second, it is shown that the Rindex is a relatively reliable statistic in the sense that, subject to caveats, after controlling for the extent of tariff preference at the tariff-line level, it accounts for differences in utilization rates at the tariff line level. Finally, together with utilization rates, the index can be used to estimate total compliance costs of RoOs. The second chapter proposes a reform of preferential Roos with the aim of making them more transparent and less discriminatory. Such a reform would make preferential blocs more "cross-compatible" and would therefore facilitate cumulation. It would also contribute to move regionalism toward more openness and hence to make it more compatible with the multilateral trading system. It focuses on NAFTA, one of the most restrictive FTAs (see Estevadeordal and Suominen 2006), and proposes a way forward that is close in spirit to what the EU Commission is considering for the PANEURO system. In a nutshell, the idea is to replace the current array of RoOs by a single instrument- Maximum Foreign Content (MFC). An MFC is a conceptually clear and transparent instrument, like a tariff. Therefore changing all instruments into an MFC would bring improved transparency pretty much like the "tariffication" of NTBs. The methodology for this exercise is as follows: In step 1, I estimate the relationship between utilization rates, tariff preferences and RoOs. In step 2, I retrieve the estimates and invert the relationship to get a simulated MFC that gives, line by line, the same utilization rate as the old array of Roos. In step 3, I calculate the trade-weighted average of the simulated MFC across all lines to get an overall equivalent of the current system and explore the possibility of setting this unique instrument at a uniform rate across lines. This would have two advantages. First, like a uniform tariff, a uniform MFC would make it difficult for lobbies to manipulate the instrument at the margin. This argument is standard in the political-economy literature and has been used time and again in support of reductions in the variance of tariffs (together with standard welfare considerations). Second, uniformity across lines is the only way to eliminate the indirect source of discrimination alluded to earlier. Only if two countries face uniform RoOs and tariff preference will they face uniform incentives irrespective of their initial export structure. The result of this exercise is striking: the average simulated MFC is 25% of good value, a very low (i.e. restrictive) level, confirming Estevadeordal and Suominen's critical assessment of NAFTA's RoOs. Adopting a uniform MFC would imply a relaxation from the benchmark level for sectors like chemicals or textiles & apparel, and a stiffening for wood products, papers and base metals. Overall, however, the changes are not drastic, suggesting perhaps only moderate resistance to change from special interests. The third chapter of the thesis considers whether Europe Agreements of the EU, with the current sets of RoOs, could be the potential model for future EU-centered PTAs. First, I have studied and coded at the six-digit level of the Harmonised System (HS) .both the old RoOs -used before 1997- and the "Single list" Roos -used since 1997. Second, using a Constant Elasticity Transformation function where CEEC exporters smoothly mix sales between the EU and the rest of the world by comparing producer prices on each market, I have estimated the trade effects of the EU RoOs. The estimates suggest that much of the market access conferred by the EAs -outside sensitive sectors- was undone by the cost-raising effects of RoOs. The chapter also contains an analysis of the evolution of the CEECs' trade with the EU from post-communism to accession. Part II The last chapter of the thesis is concerned with anti-dumping, another trade-policy instrument having the effect of reducing market access. In 1995, the Uruguay Round introduced in the Anti-Dumping Agreement (ADA) a mandatory "sunset-review" clause (Article 11.3 ADA) under which anti-dumping measures should be reviewed no later than five years from their imposition and terminated unless there was a serious risk of resumption of injurious dumping. The last chapter, written with Pr. Olivier Cadot and Pr. Jaime de Melo, uses a new database on Anti-Dumping (AD) measures worldwide to assess whether the sunset-review agreement had any effect. The question we address is whether the WTO Agreement succeeded in imposing the discipline of a five-year cycle on AD measures and, ultimately, in curbing their length. Two methods are used; count data analysis and survival analysis. First, using Poisson and Negative Binomial regressions, the count of AD measures' revocations is regressed on (inter alia) the count of "initiations" lagged five years. The analysis yields a coefficient on measures' initiations lagged five years that is larger and more precisely estimated after the agreement than before, suggesting some effect. However the coefficient estimate is nowhere near the value that would give a one-for-one relationship between initiations and revocations after five years. We also find that (i) if the agreement affected EU AD practices, the effect went the wrong way, the five-year cycle being quantitatively weaker after the agreement than before; (ii) the agreement had no visible effect on the United States except for aone-time peak in 2000, suggesting a mopping-up of old cases. Second, the survival analysis of AD measures around the world suggests a shortening of their expected lifetime after the agreement, and this shortening effect (a downward shift in the survival function postagreement) was larger and more significant for measures targeted at WTO members than for those targeted at non-members (for which WTO disciplines do not bind), suggesting that compliance was de jure. A difference-in-differences Cox regression confirms this diagnosis: controlling for the countries imposing the measures, for the investigated countries and for the products' sector, we find a larger increase in the hazard rate of AD measures covered by the Agreement than for other measures.

Content validation of the dimensions constituting non-adherence to treatment of arterial hypertension

The objective of the study was to validate the content of the dimensions that constituted nonadherence to treatment of arterial systemic hypertension. It was a methodological study of content validation. Initially an integrative review was conducted that demonstrated four dimensions of nonadherence: person, disease/treatment, health service, and environment. Definitions of these dimensions were evaluated by 17 professionals, who were specialists in the area, including: nurses, pharmacists and physicians. The Content Validity Index was calculated for each dimension (IVCi) and the set of the dimensions (IVCt), and the binomial test was conducted. The results permitted the validation of the dimensions with an IVCt of 0.88, demonstrating reasonable systematic comprehension of the phenomena of nonadherence.

Recycled Content Plastic Bag and Soy Inks Report, FY 2006

Report to Margaret Thomson, Chief Clerk, about Recycled Content Plastic Bag and Soy Inks.

Lower thigh subcutaneous and higher visceral abdominal adipose tissue content both contribute to insulin resistance.

It is well known that visceral adipose tissue (VAT) is associated with insulin resistance (IR). Considerable debate remains concerning the potential positive effect of thigh subcutaneous adipose tissue (TSAT). Our objective was to observe whether VAT and TSAT are opposite, synergistic or additive for both peripheral and hepatic IR. Fifty-two volunteers (21 male/31 female) between 30 and 75 years old were recruited from the general population. All subjects were sedentary overweight or obese (mean BMI 33.0 ± 3.4 kg/m(2)). Insulin sensitivity was determined by a 4-h hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp with stable isotope tracer dilution. Total body fat and lean body mass were determined by dual X-ray absorptiometry. Abdominal and mid-thigh adiposity was determined by computed tomography. VAT was negatively associated with peripheral insulin sensitivity, while TSAT, in contrast, was positively associated with peripheral insulin sensitivity. Subjects with a combination of low VAT and high TSAT had the highest insulin sensitivity, subjects with a combination of high VAT and low TSAT were the most insulin resistant. These associations remained significant after adjusting for age and gender. These data confirm that visceral excess abdominal adiposity is associated with IR across a range of middle-age to older men and women, and further suggest that higher thigh subcutaneous fat is favorably associated with better insulin sensitivity. This strongly suggests that these two distinct fat distribution phenotypes should both be considered in IR as important determinants of cardiometabolic risk.

Content validation of the nursing diagnosis Nausea

This study aimed to evaluate the content validity of the nursing diagnosis of nausea in the immediate post-operative period, considering Fehring’s model. Descriptive study with 52 nurses experts who responded an instrument containing identification and validation of nausea diagnosis data. Most experts considered the domain 12 (Comfort), Class 1 (Physical Comfort) and the statement (Nausea) adequate to the diagnosis. Modifications were suggested in the current definition of this nursing diagnosis. Four defining characteristics were considered primary (reported nausea, increased salivation, aversion to food and vomiting sensation) and eight secondary (increased swallowing, sour taste in the mouth, pallor, tachycardia, diaphoresis, sensation of hot and cold, changes in blood pressure and pupil dilation). The total score for the diagnosis of nausea was 0.79. Reports of nausea, vomiting sensation, increased salivation and aversion to food are strong predictors of nursing diagnosis of nausea.

Assessment of diesel exhaust particulate exposure and surface characteristics in association with levels of oxidative stress biomarkers

Exposure to PM10 and PM2.5 (particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter smaller than 10 μm and 2.5 μm, respectively) is associated with a range of adverse health effects, including cancer, pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases. Surface characteristics (chemical reactivity, surface area) are considered of prime importance to understand the mechanisms which lead to harmful effects. A hypothetical mechanism to explain these adverse effects is the ability of components (organics, metal ions) adsorbed on these particles to generate Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), and thereby to cause oxidative stress in biological systems (Donaldson et al., 2003). ROS can attack almost any cellular structure, like DNA or cellular membrane, leading to the formation of a wide variety of degradation products which can be used as a biomarker of oxidative stress. The aim of the present research project is to test whether there is a correlation between the exposure to Diesel Exhaust Particulate (DEP) and the oxidative stress status. For that purpose, a survey has been conducted in real occupational situations where workers were exposed to DEP (bus depots). Different exposure variables have been considered: - particulate number, size distribution and surface area (SMPS); - particulate mass - PM2.5 and PM4 (gravimetry); - elemental and organic carbon (coulometry); - total adsorbed heavy metals - iron, copper, manganese (atomic adsorption); - surface functional groups present on aerosols (Knudsen flow reactor). (Demirdjian et al., 2005). Several biomarkers of oxidative stress (8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine and several aldehydes) have been determined either in urine or serum of volunteers. Results obtained during the sampling campaign in several bus depots indicated that the occupational exposure to particulates in these places was rather low (40-50 μg/m3 for PM4). Size distributions indicated that particles are within the nanometric range. Surface characteristics of sampled particles varied strongly, depending on the bus depot. They were usually characterized by high carbonyl and low acidic sites content. Among the different biomarkers which have been analyzed within the framework of this study, mean levels of 8- hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine and several aldehydes (hexanal, heptanal, octanal, nonanal) increased during two consecutive days of exposure for non-smokers. In order to bring some insight into the relation between the particulate characteristics and the formation of ROS by-products, biomarkers levels will be discussed in relation with exposure variables.

Instrument for assessing the quality of mobile emergency pre-hospital care: content validation

OBJECTIVES To validate an instrument to assess quality of mobile emergency pre-hospital care. METHOD A methodological study where 20 professionals gave their opinions on the items of the proposed instrument. The analysis was performed using Kappa test (K) and Content Validity Index (CVI), considering K> 0.80 and CVI ≥ 0.80. RESULTS Three items were excluded from the instrument: Professional Compensation; Job Satisfaction and Services Performed. Items that obtained adequate K and CVI indexes and remained in the instrument were: ambulance conservation status; physical structure; comfort in the ambulance; availability of material resources; user/staff safety; continuous learning; safety demonstrated by the team; access; welcoming; humanization; response time; costumer privacy; guidelines on care; relationship between professionals and costumers; opportunity for costumers to make complaints and multiprofessional conjunction/actuation. CONCLUSION The instrument to assess quality of care has been validated and may contribute to the evaluation of pre-hospital care in mobile emergency services.

Reduction of connexin36 content by ICER-1 contributes to insulin-secreting cells apoptosis induced by oxidized LDL particles.

Connexin36 (Cx36), a trans-membrane protein that forms gap junctions between insulin-secreting beta-cells in the Langerhans islets, contributes to the proper control of insulin secretion and beta-cell survival. Hypercholesterolemia and pro-atherogenic low density lipoproteins (LDL) contribute to beta-cell dysfunction and apoptosis in the context of Type 2 diabetes. We investigated the impact of LDL-cholesterol on Cx36 levels in beta-cells. As compared to WT mice, the Cx36 content was reduced in islets from hypercholesterolemic ApoE-/- mice. Prolonged exposure to human native (nLDL) or oxidized LDL (oxLDL) particles decreased the expression of Cx36 in insulin secreting cell-lines and isolated rodent islets. Cx36 down-regulation was associated with overexpression of the inducible cAMP early repressor (ICER-1) and the selective disruption of ICER-1 prevented the effects of oxLDL on Cx36 expression. Oil red O staining and Plin1 expression levels suggested that oxLDL were less stored as neutral lipid droplets than nLDL in INS-1E cells. The lipid beta-oxidation inhibitor etomoxir enhanced oxLDL-induced apoptosis whereas the ceramide synthesis inhibitor myriocin partially protected INS-1E cells, suggesting that oxLDL toxicity was due to impaired metabolism of the lipids. ICER-1 and Cx36 expressions were closely correlated with oxLDL toxicity. Cx36 knock-down in INS-1E cells or knock-out in primary islets sensitized beta-cells to oxLDL-induced apoptosis. In contrast, overexpression of Cx36 partially protected INS-1E cells against apoptosis. These data demonstrate that the reduction of Cx36 content in beta-cells by oxLDL particles is mediated by ICER-1 and contributes to oxLDL-induced beta-cell apoptosis.

Engineering polyhydroxyalkanoate content and monomer composition in the oleaginous yeast Yarrowia lipolytica by modifying the ß-oxidation multifunctional protein.

Recombinant strains of the oleaginous yeast Yarrowia lipolytica expressing the PHA synthase gene (PhaC) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the peroxisome were found able to produce polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA). PHA production yield, but not the monomer composition, was dependent on POX genotype (POX genes encoding acyl-CoA oxidases) (Haddouche et al. FEMS Yeast Res 10:917-927, 2010). In this study of variants of the Y. lipolytica β-oxidation multifunctional enzyme, with deletions or inactivations of the R-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase domain, we were able to produce hetero-polymers (functional MFE enzyme) or homo-polymers (with no 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase activity) of PHA consisting principally of 3-hydroxyacid monomers (>80%) of the same length as the external fatty acid used for growth. The redirection of fatty acid flux towards β-oxidation, by deletion of the neutral lipid synthesis pathway (mutant strain Q4 devoid of the acyltransferases encoded by the LRO1, DGA1, DGA2 and ARE1 genes), in combination with variant expressing only the enoyl-CoA hydratase 2 domain, led to a significant increase in PHA levels, to 7.3% of cell dry weight. Finally, the presence of shorter monomers (up to 20% of the monomers) in a mutant strain lacking the peroxisomal 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase domain provided evidence for the occurrence of partial mitochondrial β-oxidation in Y. lipolytica.

Improving Transition Outcomes: Resource Mapping Workshop: Content Outline

Content outline used during the Improving Transition Outcomes Resource Mapping Workshops

FY 07 Recycled Content Plastic Bag and Soy Inks Report

As required in Iowa Code section 307.21, this is a summary of purchasing activity for soy-based inks and recycled content trash bags. The figures are for fiscal year 2007.

Analysis of digestive tract content of the larvae of Polybia scutellaris (White) (Hymenoptera, Vespidae)

Polybia scutellaris (White, 1841) is a social wasp of biological interest for its role as pollinator and maybe as biological control agent of sanitary and agricultural pests. This study examines the digestive tract contents of the larvae of P. scutellaris from four nests in Magdalena (Buenos Aires province, Argentina). Contents included both animal (arthropod parts) and plant (pollen, leaf and fruit epidermis) parts. The pollen content analysis showed that the wasps visited 19 different taxa of plants during the last active period of the colony before the nests had been collected. The range of sources used by P. scutellaris allows us characterizing the species as a generalist flower visitor. Wasps visited both native and exotic plants located nearby the nest. Most of the epidermal plant remains found in the larval digestive tract belonged to Malvaceae, a family not exploited by the studied colonies as pollen source.

Intergenerational mobility and the informative content of surnames

We propose an alternative method for measuring intergenerational mobility. Measurements obtained fromtraditional methods (based on panel data) are scarce, difficult to compare across countries and almost impossible to get across time. In particular, this means that we do not know how intergenerational mobility is correlated with growth, income or the degree of inequality.Our proposal is to measure the informative content of surnames in one census. The more information thesurname has on the income of an individual, the more important is her background in determining her outcomes; and thus, the less mobility there is.The reason is that surnames provide information about family relationships because the distribution ofsurnames is necessarily very skewed. A large percentage of the population is bound to have a very unfrequent surname. For them the partition generated by surnames is very informative on family linkages.First, we develop a model whose endogenous variable is the joint distribution of surnames and income.There, we explore the relationship between mobility and the informative content of surnames. We allow for assortative mating to be a determinant of both.Second, we use our methodology to show that in large Spanish region the informative content of surnamesis large and consistent with the model. We also show that it has increased over time, indicating a substantial drop in the degree of mobility. Finally, using the peculiarities of the Spanish surname convention we show that the degree of assortative mating has also increased over time, in such a manner that might explain the decrease in mobility observed.Our method allows us to provide measures of mobility comparable across time. It should also allow us tostudy other issues related to inheritance.

FY 08 Recycled Content Plastic Bags and Soy Inks Report

As required in Iowa Code section 307.21, the Iowa Department of Transportation submits the following summary of purchasing activity for soy based inks and recycled trash bags. The figures are for Fiscal Year 2008.