Are great Cascadia earthquakes recorded in the sedimentary records from small forearc lakes?

Here we investigate sedimentary records from four small inland lakes located in the southern Cascadia forearc region for evidence of earthquakes. Three of these lakes are in the Klamath Mountains near the Oregon–California border, and one is in the central Oregon Coast range. The sedimentary sequences recovered from these lakes are composed of normal lake sediment interbedded with disturbance event layers. The thickest of these layers are graded, and appear to be turbidites or linked debrites (turbidites with a basal debris-flow deposit), suggesting rapid deposition. Variations in particle size and organic content of these layers are reflected in the density and magnetic susceptibility data. The frequency and timing of these events, based on radiocarbon ages from detrital organics, is similar to the offshore seismogenic turbidite record from trench and slope basin cores along the Cascadia margin. Stratigraphic correlation of these anomalous deposits based on radiocarbon ages, down-core density, and magnetic susceptibility data between lake and offshore records suggest synchronous triggering. The areal extent and multiple depositional environments over which these events appear to correlate suggest that these deposits were most likely caused by shaking during great Cascadia earthquakes.

Neotethys closure history of Anatolia: insights from 40Ar–39Ar geochronology and P–T estimation in high pressure metasedimentary rocks

The multiple high-pressure (HP), low-temperature (LT) metamorphic units of Western and Central Anatolia offer a great opportunity to investigate the subduction- and continental accretion-related evolution of the eastern limb of the long-lived Aegean subduction system. Recent reports of the HP–LT index mineral Fe-Mg-carpholite in three metasedimentary units of the Gondwana-derived Anatolide–Tauride continental block (namely the Afyon Zone, the Ören Unit and the southern Menderes Massif) suggest a more complicated scenario than the single-continental accretion model generally put forward in previous studies. This study presents the first isotopic dates (white mica 40Ar–39Ar geochronology), and where possible are combined with P–T estimates (chlorite thermometry, phengite barometry, multi-equilibrium thermobarometry), on carpholite-bearing rocks from these three HP–LT metasedimentary units. It is shown that, in the Afyon Zone, carpholite-bearing assemblages were retrogressed through greenschist-facies conditions at c. 67–62 Ma. Early retrograde stages in the Ören Unit are dated to 63–59 Ma. In the Kurudere–Nebiler Unit (HP Mesozoic cover of the southern Menderes Massif), HP retrograde stages are dated to c. 45 Ma, and post-collisional cooling to c. 26 Ma. These new results support that the Ören Unit represents the westernmost continuation of the Afyon Zone, whereas the Kurudere–Nebiler Unit correlates with the Cycladic Blueschist Unit of the Aegean Domain. In Western Anatolia, three successive HP–LT metamorphic belts thus formed: the northernmost Tavşanlı Zone (c. 88–82 Ma), the Ören–Afyon Zone (between 70 and 65 Ma), and the Kurudere–Nebiler Unit (c. 52–45 Ma). The southward younging trend of the HP–LT metamorphism from the upper and internal to the deeper and more external structural units, as in the Aegean Domain, points to the persistence of subduction in Western Anatolia between 93–90 and c. 35 Ma. After the accretion of the Menderes–Tauride terrane, in Eocene times, subduction stopped, leading to continental collision and associated Barrovian-type metamorphism. Because, by contrast, the Aegean subduction did remain active due to slab roll-back and trench migration, the eastern limb (below Southwestern Anatolia) of the Hellenic slab was dramatically curved and consequently teared. It therefore is suggested that the possibility for subduction to continue after the accretion of buoyant (e.g. continental) terranes probably depends much on palaeogeography.

Sedimentary evolution and environmental history of Lake Van (Turkey) over the past 600,000 years

The lithostratigraphic framework of Lake Van, eastern Turkey, has been systematically analysed to document the sedimentary evolution and the environmental history of the lake during the past ca 600,000 years. The lithostratigraphy and chemostratigraphy of a 219 m long drill core from Lake Van serves to separate global climate oscillations from local factors caused by tectonic and volcanic activity. An age model was established based on the climatostratigraphic alignment of chemical and lithological signatures, validated by 40Ar/39Ar ages. The drilled sequence consists of ca 76% lacustrine carbonaceous clayey silt, ca 2% fluvial deposits, ca 17% volcaniclastic deposits and 5% gaps. Six lacustrine lithotypes were separated from the fluvial and event deposits, such as volcaniclastics (ca 300 layers) and graded beds (ca 375 layers), and their depositional environments are documented. These lithotypes are: (i) graded beds frequently intercalated with varved clayey silts reflect rising lake-levels during the terminations; (ii) varved clayey silts reflect strong seasonality and an intralake oxic–anoxic boundary, for example, lake-level highstands during interglacials/interstadials; (iii) CaCO3-rich banded sediments are representative of a lowering of the oxic-anoxic boundary, for example, lake-level decreases during glacial inceptions; (iv) CaCO3-poor banded and mottled clayey silts reflect an oxic–anoxic boundary close to the sediment-water interface, for example, lake-level low-stands during glacials/stadials; (v) diatomaceous muds were deposited during the early beginning of the lake as a fresh water system; and (vi) fluvial sands and gravels indicate the initial flooding of the lake basin. The recurrence of lithologies (i) to (iv) follows the past five glacial/interglacial cycles. A 20 m thick disturbed unit reflects an interval of major tectonic activity in Lake Van at ca 414 ka BP.

Solute transport in crystalline rocks at Äspö — I: Geological basis and model calibration

Water-conducting faults and fractures were studied in the granite-hosted A¨ spo¨ Hard Rock Laboratory (SE Sweden). On a scale of decametres and larger, steeply dipping faults dominate and contain a variety of different fault rocks (mylonites, cataclasites, fault gouges). On a smaller scale, somewhat less regular fracture patterns were found. Conceptual models of the fault and fracture geometries and of the properties of rock types adjacent to fractures were derived and used as input for the modelling of in situ dipole tracer tests that were conducted in the framework of the Tracer Retention Understanding Experiment (TRUE-1) on a scale of metres. After the identification of all relevant transport and retardation processes, blind predictions of the breakthroughs of conservative to moderately sorbing tracers were calculated and then compared with the experimental data. This paper provides the geological basis and model calibration, while the predictive and inverse modelling work is the topic of the companion paper [J. Contam. Hydrol. 61 (2003) 175]. The TRUE-1 experimental volume is highly fractured and contains the same types of fault rocks and alterations as on the decametric scale. The experimental flow field was modelled on the basis of a 2D-streamtube formalism with an underlying homogeneous and isotropic transmissivity field. Tracer transport was modelled using the dual porosity medium approach, which is linked to the flow model by the flow porosity. Given the substantial pumping rates in the extraction borehole, the transport domain has a maximum width of a few centimetres only. It is concluded that both the uncertainty with regard to the length of individual fractures and the detailed geometry of the network along the flowpath between injection and extraction boreholes are not critical because flow is largely one-dimensional, whether through a single fracture or a network. Process identification and model calibration were based on a single uranine breakthrough (test PDT3), which clearly showed that matrix diffusion had to be included in the model even over the short experimental time scales, evidenced by a characteristic shape of the trailing edge of the breakthrough curve. Using the geological information and therefore considering limited matrix diffusion into a thin fault gouge horizon resulted in a good fit to the experiment. On the other hand, fresh granite was found not to interact noticeably with the tracers over the time scales of the experiments. While fracture-filling gouge materials are very efficient in retarding tracers over short periods of time (hours–days), their volume is very small and, with time progressing, retardation will be dominated by altered wall rock and, finally, by fresh granite. In such rocks, both porosity (and therefore the effective diffusion coefficient) and sorption Kds are more than one order of magnitude smaller compared to fault gouge, thus indicating that long-term retardation is expected to occur but to be less pronounced.

Solute transport in crystalline rocks at Äspö — II: Blind predictions, inverse modelling and lessons learnt from test STT1

Based on the results from detailed structural and petrological characterisation and on up-scaled laboratory values for sorption and diffusion, blind predictions were made for the STT1 dipole tracer test performed in the Swedish A¨ spo¨ Hard Rock Laboratory. The tracers used were nonsorbing, such as uranine and tritiated water, weakly sorbing 22Na+, 85Sr2 +, 47Ca2 +and more strongly sorbing 86Rb+, 133Ba2 +, 137Cs+. Our model consists of two parts: (1) a flow part based on a 2D-streamtube formalism accounting for the natural background flow field and with an underlying homogeneous and isotropic transmissivity field and (2) a transport part in terms of the dual porosity medium approach which is linked to the flow part by the flow porosity. The calibration of the model was done using the data from one single uranine breakthrough (PDT3). The study clearly showed that matrix diffusion into a highly porous material, fault gouge, had to be included in our model evidenced by the characteristic shape of the breakthrough curve and in line with geological observations. After the disclosure of the measurements, it turned out that, in spite of the simplicity of our model, the prediction for the nonsorbing and weakly sorbing tracers was fairly good. The blind prediction for the more strongly sorbing tracers was in general less accurate. The reason for the good predictions is deemed to be the result of the choice of a model structure strongly based on geological observation. The breakthrough curves were inversely modelled to determine in situ values for the transport parameters and to draw consequences on the model structure applied. For good fits, only one additional fracture family in contact with cataclasite had to be taken into account, but no new transport mechanisms had to be invoked. The in situ values for the effective diffusion coefficient for fault gouge are a factor of 2–15 larger than the laboratory data. For cataclasite, both data sets have values comparable to laboratory data. The extracted Kd values for the weakly sorbing tracers are larger than Swedish laboratory data by a factor of 25–60, but agree within a factor of 3–5 for the more strongly sorbing nuclides. The reason for the inconsistency concerning Kds is the use of fresh granite in the laboratory studies, whereas tracers in the field experiments interact only with fracture fault gouge and to a lesser extent with cataclasite both being mineralogically very different (e.g. clay-bearing) from the intact wall rock.

Assessing Initial Conditions for Chloride Transport Across Low- permeability Argillaceous Rocks, Wellenberg, Switzerland

Information about fluid evolution and solute transport in a low-permeability metamorphic rock sequence has been obtained by comparing chloride concentrations and chlorine isotope ratios of pore water, groundwater, and fluid inclusions. The similarity of d37Cl values in fluid inclusions and groundwater suggests a closed-system evolution during the metamorphic overprint, and signatures established at this time appear to form the initial conditions for chloride transport after exhumation of the rock sequence.

Subcritical Propagation and Coalescence of Oil-Filled Cracks: Getting the Oil Out of Low-Permeability Source Rocks

We use a fracture mechanics model to study subcritical propagation and coalescence of single and collinear oil-filled cracks during conversion of kerogen to oil. The subcritical propagation distance, propagation duration, crack coalescence and excess oil pressure in the crack are determined using the fracture mechanics model together with the kinetics of kerogen-oil transformation. The propagation duration for the single crack is governed by the transformation kinetics whereas the propagation duration for the multiple collinear cracks may vary by two orders of magnitude depending on initial crack spacing. A large amount of kerogen (>90%) remains unconverted when the collinear cracks coalesce and the new, larger cracks resulting from coalescence will continue to propagate with continued kerogen-oil conversion. The excess oil pressure on the crack surfaces drops precipitously when the collinear cracks are about to coalesce, and crack propagation duration and oil pressure on the crack surfaces are strongly dependent on temperature. Citation: Jin, Z.-H., S. E. Johnson, and Z. Q. Fan (2010), Subcritical propagation and coalescence of oil-filled cracks: Getting the oil out of low-permeability source rocks, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L01305, doi:10.1029/2009GL041576.

Metamorphism, Transient Mid-Crustal Rheology, Strain Localization and the Exhumation of High-Grade Metamorphic Rocks

We present a series of three-dimensional numerical models investigating the effects of metamorphic strengthening and weakening on the geodynamic evolution of convergent orogens that are constrained by observations from an exposed mid-crustal section in the New England Appalachians. The natural mid-crustal section records evidence for spatially and temporally variable mid-crustal strength as a function of metamorphic grade during prograde polymetamorphism. Our models address changes in strain rate partitioning and topographic uplift as a function of strengthening/weakening in the middle crust, as well as the resultant changes in deformation kinematics and potential exhumation patterns of high-grade metamorphic rock. Results suggest that strengthening leads to strain rate partitioning around the zone and suppressed topographic uplift rates whereas weakening leads to strain rate partitioning into the zone and enhanced topographic uplift rates. Deformation kinematics recorded in the orogen are also affected by strengthening/weakening, with complete reversals in shear sense occurring as a function of strengthening/weakening without changes in plate boundary kinematics.

Magma-Driven Multiple Dike Propagation and Fracture Toughness of Crustal Rocks

Dike swarms consisting of tens to thousands of subparallel dikes are commonly observed at Earth's surface, raising the possibility of simultaneous propagation of two or more dikes at various stages of a swarm's development. The behavior of multiple propagating dikes differs from that of a single dike owing to the interacting stress fields associated with each dike. We analyze an array of parallel, periodically spaced dikes that grow simultaneously from an overpressured source into a semi-infinite, linear elastic host rock. To simplify the analysis, we assume steady state (constant velocity) magma flow and dike propagation. We use a perturbation method to analyze the coupled, nonlinear problem of multiple dike propagation and magma transport. The stress intensity factor at the dike tips and the opening displacements of the dike surfaces are calculated. The numerical results show that dike spacing has a profound effect on the behavior of dike propagation. The stress intensity factors at the tips of parallel dikes decrease with a decrease in dike spacing and are significantly smaller than that for a single dike with the same length. The reduced stress intensity factor indicates that, compared to a single dike, propagation of parallel dikes is more likely to be arrested under otherwise the same conditions. It also implies that fracture toughness of the host rock in a high confining pressure environment may not be as high as inferred from the propagation of a single dike. Our numerical results suggest fracture toughness values on the order of 100 MPa root m. The opening displacements for parallel dikes are smaller than that for a single dike, which results in higher magma pressure gradients in parallel dikes and lower flux of magma transport.

Timing of Tertiary Extension in the Railroad Valley Pioche Transect, Nevada: Constraints from Ar-40/Ar-39 Ages of Volcanic Rocks

Time-space relations of extension and volcanism place critical constraints on models of Basin and Range extensional processes. This paper addresses such relations in a 130-km-wide transect in the eastern Great Basin, bounded on the east by the Ely Springs Range and on the west by the Grant and Quinn Canyon ranges. Stratigraphic and structural data, combined with 40Ar/39Ar isotopic ages of volcanic rocks, document a protracted but distinctly episodic extensional history. Field relations indicate four periods of faulting. Only one of these periods was synchronous with nearby volcanic activity, which implies that volcanism and faulting need not be associated closely in space and time. Based on published dates and the analyses reported here, the periods of extension were (1) prevolcanic (pre-32 Ma), (2) early synvolcanic (30 to 27 Ma), (3) immediately postvolcanic (about 16 to 14 Ma), and (4) Pliocene to Quaternary. The break between the second and third periods is distinct. The minimum gap between the first two periods is 2 Ma, but the separation may be much larger. Temporal separation of the last two periods is only suggested by the stratigraphic record and cannot be rigorously demonstrated with present data. The three younger periods of faulting apparently occurred across the entire transect. The oldest period is recognized only at the eastern end of the transect, but appears to correlate about 150 km northward along strike with extension in the Northern Snake Range-Kern Mountains area. Therefore the oldest period also is regional in extent, but affected a different area than that affected by younger periods. This relation suggests that distinct extensional structures and master detachment faults were active at different times. The correlation of deformation periods of a few million years duration across the Railroad Valley-Pioche transect suggests that the scale of active extensional domains in the Great Basin may be greater than 100 km across strike.

Chevkinite-Group Minerals from Granulite-Facies Metamorphic Rocks and Associated Pegmatites of East Antarctica and South India

Electron microprobe data are presented for chevkinite-group minerals from granulite-facies rocks and associated pegmatities of the Napier Complex and Mawson Station charnockite in East Antarctica and from the Eastern Ghats, South India. Their compositions conform to the general formula for this group, viz. A(4)BC(2)D(2)Si(4)O(22) where, in the analysed specimens A = (rare-earth elements (REE), Ca, Y, Th), B = Fe(2+) Mg, C = (Al, Mg, Ti, Fe(2+), Fe(3+), Zr) and D = Ti and plot within the perrierite field oftlic total Fe (as FeO) (wt.%) vs. CaO (wt.%) discriminator diagram of Macdonald and Belkin (2002). In contrast to most chevkinite-group minerals, the A site shows unusual enrichment in the MREE and HREE relative to the LREE and Ca. In one sample from the Napier Complex, Y is the dominant cation among the total REE + Y in the A site, the first reported case of Y-dominance in the chevkinite group. The minerals include the most Al-rich yet reported in the chevkinite group (<= 9.15 wt.% Al(2)O(3)), sufficient to fill the C site in two samples. Conversely, the amount of Ti in these samples does not fill the D site. and, thus, some of the Al could be making up the deficiency at D, a situation not previously reported in the chevkinite group. Fe abudances are low, requiring Mg to occupy up to 45% of the B site. The chevkinite-group minerals analysed originated from three distinct parageneses: (1) pegmatites containing hornblende and orthopyroxene or garnet; (2) orthopyroxene-bearing gneiss and granulite; (3) highly aluminous paragneisses in which the associated minerals are relatively magnesian or aluminous. Chevkinite-group minerals from the first two parageneses have relatively high FeO content and low MgO and Al(2)O(3) contents; their compositions plot in the field for mafic and intermediate igneous rocks. In contrast, chevkinite-group minerals from the third paragenesis are notably more aluminous and have greater Mg/Fe ratios.

Sedimentary Metal Bioavailability Determined By the Digestive Constraints of Marine Deposit Feeders: Gut Retention Time and Dissolved Amino Acids

Contaminant metals bound to sediments are subject to considerable solubilization during passage of the sediments through the digestive systems of deposit feeders. We examined the kinetics of this process, using digestive fluids extracted from deposit feeders Arenicola marina and Parastichopus californicus and then incubated with contaminated sediments. Kinetics are complex, with solubilization followed occasionally by readsorption onto the sediment. In general, solubilization kinetics are biphasic, with an initial rapid step followed by a slower reaction. For many sediment-organism combinations, the reaction will not reach a steady state or equilibrium within the gut retention time (GRT) of the organisms, suggesting that metal bioavailability in sediments is a time-dependent parameter. Experiments with commercial protein solutions mimic the kinetic patterns observed with digestive fluids, which corroborates our previous study that complexation by dissolved amino acids (AA) in digestive fluids leads to metal solubilization (Chen & Mayer 1998b; Environ Sci Technol 32:770-778). The relative importance of the fast and slow reactions appears to depend on the ratio of ligands in gut fluids to the amount of bound metal in sediments. High ligand to solid metal ratios result in more metals released in fast reactions and thus higher lability of sedimentary metals. Multiple extractions of a sediment with digestive fluid of A. marina confirm the potential importance of incomplete reactions within a single deposit-feeding event, and make clear that bioavailability to a single animal is Likely different from that to a community of organisms. The complex kinetic patterns lead to the counterintuitive prediction that toxification of digestive enzymes by solubilized metals will occur more readily in species that dissolve less metals.

The Yanque prospect (Peru): from polymetallic Zn-Pb mineralization to a nonsulfide deposit

The Yanque nonsulfide Pb-Zn deposit (inferred resources 12.5 Mt @ 3.7% Pb and @ 3.5% Zn) is located in the Andahuaylas-Yauri ore province (Cuzco, southern Peru). The deposit occurs within a base metal mineralized district, centered on the medium-sized Dolores porphyry copper. A thorough geological, mineralogical and geochemical study has carried out in order to define: the relationships between the Dolores Cu-porphyry ore and the Yanque Zn-Pb polymetallic mineralization, and the characteristics of the economic nonsulfide concentrations. Both sedimentary and igneous rocks constitute the backbone of the Yanque-Dolores area. The sedimentary lithologies belong to the Soraya, Mara and Ferrobamba Fms. (upper Jurassic-middle Cretaceous). The Yanque orebody is hosted by the Mara Fm., which prevailingly consists of a siliciclastic sedimentary breccia. The original sulfide mineralization consisted of galena, pyrite and sphalerite. The host rock has been affected by a strong hydrothermal alteration, characterized by prevailing sericite/illite, as in the typical porphyry-related phyllic-argillic alteration stage, and by minor kaolinite, dolomite and quartz. Minor element geochemistry, characterized by Sb, As, Mn, Ag and locally also by Cu, points to magmatic-hydrothermal related mineralizing fluids. The Pb isotopic compositions from Dolores and Yanque sulfides are similar, and are typical of the Tertiary magmatically-derived ores in this part of Peru. The hydrothermally altered rocks at Yanque have the same Pb isotopic compositions as the sulfides, thus confirming the hypothesis that the Yanque primary Zn-Pb mineralization may have been produced by hydrothermal circulation related to the emplacement of the Dolores Cu-porphyry, as it is the case of other porphyry Cu systems associated with polymetallic mineralization elsewhere. However, no simple genetic model for the mineralization involving just one fluid circulation episode is able to explain the data. The Yanque economic nonsulfide ore association consists of sauconite, hemimorphite, smithsonite and cerussite, which result from the weathering and alteration of the original sulfide mineralization. Zinc is allocated mainly in sauconite (Zn-smectite), rather than in carbonates: a factor strictly related to the prevailing siliciclastic character of the host rock. Distinctive features of the Yanque orebody are the comparable ore grades for both Pb and Zn (3.5% Zn and 3.7% Pb), and the inverse supergene chemical zoning. In fact, contrary to other supergene ores of this type, zinc prevails in the top zone of the Yanque deposit, whereas lead content increases with depth. Considering the different mobility of the two metals in solution, it may be assumed that most of the primary zinc that was the source for the Yanque nonsulfides was originally located far from the position occupied by the galena mineralization, whose remnants have been observed on site. Zinc sulfides may have been originally contained in the eroded rock volumes that surrounded the actual deposit: the zinc-rich solutions have possibly migrated through the siliciclastic Mara Fm. and precipitated the nonsulfide minerals by porosity filling and replacement processes. In this sense, the Yanque secondary Zn-Pb deposit could be considered as a special type of “Exotic” mineralization.