Examining the Justification for Residential Recycling

Municipalities in the United States have for the past two decades initiated two policies to reduce residential solid waste generation by increasing recycling. The first policy, implemented in over 4,000 municipalities in the United States, requires households to pay a fee for each unit of garbage presented at the curb for collection. The second policy, initiated in 8,875 municipalities, subsidizes household recycling efforts by providing free curbside collection of certain recyclable materials. Both initiatives serve as examples of incentive-based environmental policies favored by many economists. But before economists can celebrate this wide-spread adoption of incentive-based environmental policies, further examination reveals that potentially inefficient command and control policies have been more instrumental in promoting recycling than might be commonly known. This article examines the empirical lessons gained from studying twenty years of solid waste policy in the United States and argues for the replacement of several state recycling mandates with a system of state and/or national landfill taxes.

Explaining the Growth in Municipal Recycling Programs: The Role of Market and Non-Market Factors

The implementation of thousands of municipal recycling programs in the United States has increased recycling’s portion of solid waste from 10% to 30% over the past decade. But the lack of accurate data has spurred a debate over whether the growth in recycling can be attributed to market or nonmarket factors. To address this issue, this article conducts a benefit-cost analysis of a municipal recycling program. Results suggest recycling is costly. So why, then, does it remain popular? This article suggests that local governments could be responding to households that perceive a benefit from recycling services. These benefits are estimated with a contingent valuation survey.

Landfill Closure and Housing Values

The United States disposes roughly 60% of the municipal solid waste it generates each year in solid waste disposal facilities, commonly known as landfills. Hedonic pricing studies have estimated the external costs of landfills on neighboring housing markets, but the literature is silent on what happens to property values after the landfill closes. Original housing price data collected both before and after a landfill closure are used to estimate how a landfill closure affects neighboring property values. Results of both a hedonic pricing model and repeat-sales estimator are used in the analysis.

Why do Municipalities Recycle?

The disposal of municipal solid waste is believed to emit foul odor, threaten groundwater, and increase road congestion. As remote regional landfills have replaced local town dumps, these costs are no longer internalized by garbage-producing households or their municipalities. Instead, rural property owners located adjacent to large regional landfills and along the roadways accessing those landfills bear the external costs of garbage disposal. This paper uses a comprehensive nine-year panel data set of aggregated state data to empirically examine why 8,937 municipalities continue to operate costly recycling programs designed to reduce the external costs of garbage disposal. Results suggest that local tastes for recycling drive municipal decisions. If household preferences for recycling are short lived, then we can expect a future decrease in the number of municipal recycling programs. Recent data indicate the number of recycling programs in operation in the U.S. has indeed fallen.

The Socially Optimal Recycling Rate: Evidence from Japan

This paper estimates the average social cost of municipal waste management as a function of the recycling rate. Social costs include all municipal costs and revenues, costs to recycling households to prepare materials estimated with an original method, external disposal costs, and external recycling benefits. Results suggest average social costs are minimized with recycling rates well below observed and mandated levels in Japan. Cost-minimizing municipalities are estimated to recycle less than the optimal rate. These results are robust to changes in the components of social costs, indicating that Japan and perhaps other developed countries may be setting inefficiently high recycling goals. (C) 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

POST-PROJECT ASSESSMENT OF PIT LATRINES IN RURAL PANAMA

In Panama, one of the Environmental Health (EH) Sector’s primary goals is to improve the health of rural Panamanians by helping them to adopt behaviors and practices that improve access to and use of sanitation systems. In complying with this goal, the EH sector has used participatory development models to improve hygiene and increase access to latrines through volunteer managed latrine construction projects. Unfortunately, there is little understanding of the long term sustainability of these interventions after the volunteers have completed their service. With the Peace Corps adapting their Monitoring, Reporting, and Evaluation procedures, it is appropriate to evaluate the sustainability of sanitation interventions offering recommendations for the adaptions of the EH training program, project management, and evaluation procedures. Recognizing the need for evaluation of past latrine projects, the author performed a post project assessment of 19 pit latrine projects using participatory analysis methodologies. First, the author reviewed volunteers’ perspectives of pit latrine projects in a survey. Then, for comparison, the author performed a survey of latrine projects using a benchmarking scoring system to rate solid waste management, drainage, latrine siting, latrine condition, and hygiene. It was observed that the Sanitation WASH matrix created by the author was an effective tool for evaluating the efficacy of sanitation interventions. Overall more than 75%, of latrines constructed were in use. However, there were some areas where improvements could be made for both latrine construction and health and hygiene. The latrines scored poorly on the indicators related to the privacy structure and seat covers. Interestingly those are the two items least likely to be included in project subsidies. Furthermore, scores for hygiene-related indicators were low; particularly those related to hand washing and cleanliness of the kitchen, indicating potential for improvement in hygiene education. Based on these outcomes, the EH sector should consider including subsidies and standardized designs for privacy structures and seat covers for latrines. In addition, the universal adoption of contracts and/or deposits for project beneficiaries is expected to improve the completion of latrines. In order to address the low scores in the health and hygiene indicators, the EH sector should adapt volunteer training, in addition to standardizing health and hygiene intervention procedures. In doing so, the sector should mimic the Community Health Club model that has shown success in improving health and hygiene indicators, as well as use a training session plan format similar to those in the Water Committee Seminar manual. Finally, the sector should have an experienced volunteer dedicated to program oversight and post-project monitoring and evaluation.

Gravity-based Local Clock Synchronization in Wireless Sensor Networks

Contention-based MAC protocols follow periodic listen/sleep cycles. These protocols face the problem of virtual clustering if different unsynchronized listen/sleep schedules occur in the network, which has been shown to happen in wireless sensor networks. To interconnect these virtual clusters, border nodes maintaining all respective listen/sleep schedules are required. However, this is a waste of energy, if locally a common schedule can be determined. We propose to achieve local synchronization with a mechanism that is similar to gravitation. Clusters represent the mass, whereas synchronization messages sent by each cluster represent the gravitation force of the according cluster. Due to the mutual attraction caused by the clusters, all clusters merge finally. The exchange of synchronization messages itself is not altered by LACAS. Accordingly, LACAS introduces no overhead. Only a not yet used property of synchronization mechanisms is exploited.

A Low-Flow Self-Cleaning Drainage System for Fish Rearing Tanks

A float-stopper mechanism was designed to drain fish holding tanks directly from the bottom. Unlike traditional, top-drawn standpipe systems, it allows continuous flushing of settled solid waste. It also prevents the accumulation of these wastes between the two standpipes that are used in bottom-drawn, double-walled standpipe systems. When suspended solids are forced upward between the outer and inner standpipes of such systems, a minimum velocity must be maintained to prevent sediment accumulation. This minimum velocity determines the minimum flow rate through the tank. The system described in this report flushes well over a wide range of flow rates.

STRATEGIES FOR THE TRANSFER OF APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: THE IMPLEMENTATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PROGRAMS IN TUNISIA

This dissertation focuses on Project HOPE, an American medical aid agency, and its work in Tunisia. More specifically this is a study of the implementation strategies of those HOPE sponsored projects and programs designed to solve the problems of high morbidity and infant mortality rates due to environmentally related diarrheal and enteric diseases. Several environmental health programs and projects developed in cooperation with Tunisian counterparts are described and analyzed. These include (1) a paramedical manpower training program; (2) a national hospital sanitation and infection control program; (3) a community sewage disposal project; (4) a well reconstruction project; and (5) a solid-waste disposal project for a hospital.^ After independence, Tunisia, like many developing countries, encountered several difficulties which hindered progress toward solving basic environmental health problems and prompted a request for aid. This study discusses the need for all who work in development programs to recognize and assess those difficulties or constraints which affect the program planning process, including those latent cultural and political constraints which not only exist within the host country but within the aid agency as well. For example, failure to recognize cultural differences may adversely affect the attitudes of the host staff towards their work and towards the aid agency and its task. These factors, therefore, play a significant role in influencing program development decisions and must be taken into account in order to maximize the probability of successful outcomes.^ In 1969 Project HOPE was asked by the Tunisian government to assist the Ministry of Health in solving its health manpower problems. HOPE responded with several programs, one of which concerned the training of public health nurses, sanitary technicians, and aids at Tunisia's school of public health in Nabeul. The outcome of that program as well as the strategies used in its development are analyzed. Also, certain questions are addressed such as, what should the indicators of success be, and when is the time right to phase out?^ Another HOPE program analyzed involved hospital sanitation and infection control. Certain generic aspects of basic hospital sanitation procedures were documented and presented in the form of a process model which was later used as a "microplan" in setting up similar programs in other Tunisian hospitals. In this study the details of the "microplan" are discussed. The development of a nation-wide program without any further need of external assistance illustrated the success of HOPE's implementation strategies.^ Finally, although it is known that the high incidence of enteric disease in developing countries is due to poor environmental sanitation and poor hygiene practices, efforts by aid agencies to correct these conditions have often resulted in failure. Project HOPE's strategy was to maximize limited resources by using a systems approach to program development and by becoming actively involved in the design and implementation of environmental health projects utilizing "appropriate" technology. Three innovative projects and their implementation strategies (including technical specifications) are described.^ It is advocated that if aid agencies are to make any progress in helping developing countries basic sanitation problems, they must take an interdisciplinary approach to progrm development and play an active role in helping counterparts seek and identify appropriate technologies which are socially and economically acceptable. ^

Políticas territoriales y construcción del paisaje cultural : caso región Gran La Plata

El propósito es presentar las principales estrategias de ordenamiento territorial urbano puestas en práctica en los últimos quince años en el Gran La Plata, que han incidido en el paisaje cultural. Se observan tanto políticas de enfoques integrales como sectoriales, las que incorporan innovaciones en OT y proponen nuevos y/o renovados paisajes culturales y las políticas “centrales" desde las gestiones municipales. Se reflexiona sobre aportes y debilidades, incompatibilidades entre ellas, en el marco del desarrollo sustentable. La estrategia metodológica utilizada tiene un perfil cualitativo y de tipo exploratoria, con un diseño de naturaleza flexible. En el estudio de caso se identifican las modalidades de intervención en función de las transformaciones del paisaje resultante y su gestión. Tiene una fuerte orientación interpretativa y la estrategia general está orientada a conseguir una familiarización con hechos aun no suficientemente comprendidos para generar nuevas ideas que permitan realizar nuevas preguntas e hipótesis. En este marco, las políticas se tornan contradictorias, si bien han logrado modificar algunos microespacios. Se entienden más como el recorte y congelamiento/ restauración del paisaje previo que como la creación de otros renovados, nuevos y/o mejores y con valores sociales aggiornados. En lo ambiental, no han sido acompañadas por estrategias estructurantes como el arbolado urbano y disposición de los residuos sólidos urbanos.

Efecto de la densidad de plantación sobre el rendimiento de topinambur (Helianthus tuberosus L.) regado con aguas residuales urbanas

Helianthus tuberosus L. produce tubérculos ricos en hidratos de carbono fermentables que pueden ser usados para producir etanol. Para el destino energético el cultivo puede ser regado con aguas residuales urbanas. La densidad poblacional en un cultivo de topinambur afecta los parámetros de crecimiento y rendimiento. Se evaluó el efecto de la densidad de plantación sobre el rendimiento de tubérculos. Se compararon 6 tratamientos de densidad, combinando 2 espaciamientos entre hileras (0,70 y 0,80 m) y 3 espaciamientos entre plantas en la hilera (0,30; 0,40 y 0,50 m), generando stands desde las 25.000 a 47.600 plantas/ha. Se presentaron los mayores rendimientos con distancias entre plantas en la hilera de 0,30 ó 0,40 m; no se presentaron diferencias en respuesta a la distancia entre hileras. Los componentes del rendimiento (rendimiento de tubérculos por planta, número de tubérculos por planta y tamaño medio de los tubérculos) respondieron a cambios en la densidad generados por la distancias entre plantas y fueron indiferentes a la variación de distancia entre hileras. La altura de las plantas, el número de tallos principales, el porcentaje de MS y de SS en los tubérculos no se modificaron ante variaciones de densidad.

(Table 1) Stabile isotopes at DSDP Leg 55 Holes

Deep sea drilling on four seamounts in the Emperor Seamount chain revealed that Paleogene shallow-water carbonate sediments of the "bryozoan-algal" facies crown the basalt edifices. According to the biofacies model of Schlanger and Konishi (1966, 1975), this bryozoan- algal assemblage suggests that the seamounts formed in cooler, more northerly waters than those presently occupied by the island of Hawaii; i.e., the paleolatitudes of formation were greater than 20 °N. Moving southward toward the youngest member of the seamount chain, a facies gradient indicative of warmer waters was observed. This gradient is interpreted as a reflection of a northward shift in isotherms during the time span in which the seamounts were progressively formed (Savin et al., 1975). On all seamounts, sedimentation at the drilling sites occurred in a high-energy environment with water depths of approximately 20 meters. Early-stage carbonate diagenesis began in the phreatic zone in the presence of meteoric water, but proceeded after subsidence of the seamounts into intermediate sea waters, where the bulk, stable isotopic composition was determined. The subsidence into intermediate waters was rapid, and permitted establishment of an isotopic equilibrium which, like the facies gradient, reflects the northward shift in isotherms during the Paleogene. Calcite and zeolite cements comprise the later-stage diagenesis, and originated from solutions arising from the hydrolysis of the underlying basalt. In conclusion, the results of this study of the shallow-water carbonate sediments are not inconsistent with a paleolatitude of formation for Suiko Seamount (Site 433) of 26.9 ±3.5 °N, as determined by paleomagnetic measurements (Kono, 1980).

Sedimentological and geochemical characteristics of upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary sediments of ODP Hole 108-661A

Based on sedimentological and geochemical data, the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary sequence at Ocean Drilling Program Site 661 was subdivided into four intervals: Interval I (Campanian age) is characterized by sediments deposited below the calcite compensation depth (CCD) inside a high-productivity area and well-oxygenated bottom waters, indicated by the absence of carbonate, the major occurrence of zeolites and opal-CT, and intense bioturbation. Very fine-grained siliciclastic sediments and the lack of any erosional features suggest a low-energy environment. The terrigenous fraction was probably supplied by winds from the nontropical areas in South Africa. Interval II (Maestrichtian age) is characterized by high-amplitude variations in the carbonate content indicative of a deposition above the CCD, superimposed by (climate-controlled) short-term fluctuations of the CCD. The absence of both zeolites and opal-CT imply a position of Site 661 outside high-productivity areas. The first occurrence of higher amounts of kaolinite (especially during the middle Maestrichtian) suggests the onset of a terrigenous sediment supply from tropical areas. Interval III (between uppermost Cretaceous to early Tertiary) is characterized by the absence of carbonate and zeolites, interpreted as deposition below the CCD and outside an oceanic high-productivity belt. The kaolinite-over-illite dominance suggests a terrigenous sediment supply from tropical areas. Interval IV (between early Tertiary and Miocene age) is characterized by the occurrence of black manganeserich layers, major nodules/pebbles, and erosional surfaces, indicating phases of extremely reduced sediment accumulation and bottom-current activities. In the lower part of this interval (?Eocene age), higher amounts of zeolites occur, which suggest a higher oceanic productivity caused by equatorial upwelling. The source area of the terrigenous sediment fraction at Site 661 was the tropical region of northwest Africa, as suggested by the kaolinite-over-illite dominance.

Spectral reflectance of ODP Leg 178 holes

The routine use of spectrophotometry on the sediment surfaces of archive halves of each section during the onboard sedimentological core description process is a great stride toward development of real-time noninvasive characterization of deep-sea sediments. Spectral reflectance data have been used so far for mineral composition studies as well as for lithostratigraphic correlation between sites (Balsam and Deaton, 1991; Balsam et al., 1997; Mix et al., 1995; Ortiz et al., 1999). Their results demonstrate that spectrophotometry can estimate CaCO3 content by using the 4.65-, 5.25-, and 5.55-µm wavelength spectrums. A detailed overview of various other noninvasive methods is given in Ortiz and Rack (1999). The purpose of this study is to test whether spectrophotometry in the visible band can be used as a tool to gather further information about grain-size variation, sorting, compaction, and porosity, which are directly linked to the sedimentation process. From remote sensing data analyses, it is known that diffuse spectral reflectance data in the visible band in the wavelength window of 7.0-6.5 µm are sensitive to grain-size variations. It appears that a relationship between grain size and signal absorption exists only in this wavelength window. (e.g., Clark, 1999; Gaffey, 1986; Gaffey et al., 1993). Variations in grain size during a sedimentation process are linked to depositional energy, which affects sorting, compaction, and porosity of sediment deposits. As an example, we study here the spectrophotometric data of the sedimentary sequence of Hole 1098C, which was deposited under widely varying environmental conditions. Alternating turbidite and finely laminated sediments were recovered from Hole 1098C. The turbidites are related to a high depositional energy environment; the finely laminated sediments are related to a low depositional energy environment. Data from Hole 1098C were therefore used to test whether the spectral reflectance data can provide a proxy for these different depositional environments.

Export-Led Growth and Geographic Distribution of the Poultry Meat Industry in Brazil

This paper includes an examination of the sustainability of recent high growth in the poultry meat industry in Brazil. In addition, an assessment is made of the impact of increased production of poultry meat products on the development of local industries. Comparative studies of leading companies in the United States, Mexico, and Brazil reveal competitive advantages in the low costs of feedstuff and labor as well as disadvantages in the scale of business and management efficiency in the Brazilian poultry sector. Increases in domestic and foreign demand for Brazilian poultry meat have promoted development of the Brazilian poultry sector in local areas. The formation of industrial clusters is observed using regional data related to the location of slaughterhouses and the number of chickens farmed. Statistical analyses support observations made in this paper.