In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of a Folate-Targeted Copolymeric Submicrohydrogel Based on N-Isopropylacrylamide as 5-Fluorouracil Delivery System

Folate-targeted poly[(p-nitrophenyl acrylate)-co-(N-isopropylacrylamide)] nanohydrogel (F-SubMG) was loaded with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) to obtain low (16.3 +/- 1.9 mu g 5-FU/mg F-SubMG) and high (46.8 +/- 3.8 mu g 5-FU/mg F-SubMG) load 5-FU-loaded F-SubMGs. The complete in vitro drug release took place in 8 h. The cytotoxicity of unloaded F-SubMGs in MCF7 and HeLa cells was low; although it increased for high F-SubMG concentration. The administration of 10 mu M 5-FU by 5-FU-loaded F-SubMGs was effective on both cellular types. Cell uptake of F-SubMGs took place in both cell types, but it was higher in HeLa cells because they are folate receptor positive. After subcutaneous administration (28 mg 5-FU/kg b.w.) in Wistar rats, F-SubMGs were detected at the site of injection under the skin. Histological studies indicated that the F-SubMGs were surrounded by connective tissue, without any signs of rejections, even 60 days after injection. Pharmacokinetic study showed an increase in MRT (mean residence time) of 5-FU when the drug was administered by drug-loaded F-SubMGs.

Raumfigurationen und Macht in Atemschaukel

[EN] Atemschaukel approaches the falling apart and survival in a historically loaded space, such as a labour camp. This novel offers a relevant research field for the space analysis, focused from the perspective of the Spatial Turn, as not only this theoretical frame but also Herta Müller herself conceive of space as a process, unterstood as a reciprocal interaction with the social practice, thus as a spatial and social construct. The representation of space in Atemschaukel is described in this article as a “swinging movement between boxes and abyss”, where the discourse of Leopold Auberg’s memories oscillates between closed and square spaces, on one hand, and open and giddy spaces, on the other hand. In this oscillating movement it is the open spaces that will most clearly show the process of inner destruction of the subject in such oppressive situations as on labour camps, as well as the permanent damages of deportation.

装药弹体侵彻混凝土厚靶中的炸药摩擦起爆模型

基于炸药的热爆炸理论,采用炸药的热点温度(也称为临界起爆温度)作为起爆判据,分析了装药弹体在侵彻混凝土厚靶过程中的炸药安全性问题,建立了炸药摩擦起爆的热传导模型.对模型进行了量纲一化分析,得出量纲一热流率幅值Qm与炸药和弹壳界面量纲一温度峰值T′max的关系,以及可在实际工程中应用的临界量纲一控制参数Qmc,同时得到了反映摩擦产生的热量在炸药与弹壳间分配比例关系的量纲一参数ΚⅠ.结果表明,炸药装药和弹壳接触面间的强摩擦是形成热点、从而导致炸药早炸的一个重要因素.

Experiments in Neutrino Mass and Mixing: Part I - New Limits on Heavy Neutrino Emission in Nuclear Beta Decay. Part II - Fast Neutron Backgrounds for the San Onofre Neutrino Detector

In Part I of this thesis, a new magnetic spectrometer experiment which measured the β spectrum of ^(35)S is described. New limits on heavy neutrino emission in nuclear β decay were set, for a heavy neutrino mass range between 12 and 22 keV. In particular, this measurement rejects the hypothesis that a 17 keV neutrino is emitted, with sin^2 θ = 0.0085, at the 6δ statistical level. In addition, an auxiliary experiment was performed, in which an artificial kink was induced in the β spectrum by means of an absorber foil which masked a fraction of the source area. In this measurement, the sensitivity of the magnetic spectrometer to the spectral features of heavy neutrino emission was demonstrated.

In Part II, a measurement of the neutron spallation yield and multiplicity by the Cosmic-ray Underground Background Experiment is described. The production of fast neutrons by muons was investigated at an underground depth of 20 meters water equivalent, with a 200 liter detector filled with 0.09% Gd-loaded liquid scintillator. We measured a neutron production yield of (3.4 ± 0.7) x 10^(-5) neutrons per muon-g/cm^2, in agreement with other experiments. A single-to-double neutron multiplicity ratio of 4:1 was observed. In addition, stopped π^+ decays to µ^+ and then e^+ were observed as was the associated production of pions and neutrons, by the muon spallation interaction. It was seen that practically all of the π^+ produced by muons were also accompanied by at least one neutron. These measurements serve as the basis for neutron background estimates for the San Onofre neutrino detector.

Discovery of non-zero neutrino mixing angle θ_13 using Daya Bay antineutrino detectors

The Daya Bay Reactor Antineutrino Experiment observed the disappearance of reactor $\bar{\nu}_e$ from six $2.9~GW_{th}$ reactor cores in Daya Bay, China. The Experiment consists of six functionally identical $\bar{\nu}_e$ detectors, which detect $\bar{\nu}_e$ by inverse beta decay using a total of about 120 metric tons of Gd-loaded liquid scintillator as the target volume. These $\bar{\nu}_e$ detectors were installed in three underground experimental halls, two near halls and one far hall, under the mountains near Daya Bay, with overburdens of 250 m.w.e, 265 m.w.e and 860 m.w.e. and flux-weighted baselines of 470 m, 576 m and 1648 m. A total of 90179 $\bar{\nu}_e$ candidates were observed in the six detectors over a period of 55 days, 57549 at the Daya Bay near site, 22169 at the Ling Ao near site and 10461 at the far site. By performing a rate-only analysis, the value of $sin^2 2\theta_{13}$ was determined to be $0.092 \pm 0.017$.

Temporal and spacial control of RNA stability in the early embryo of Drosophila melanogaster

Early embryogenesis in metazoa is controlled by maternally synthesized products. Among these products, the mature egg is loaded with transcripts representing approximately two thirds of the genome. A subset of this maternal RNA pool is degraded prior to the transition to zygotic control of development. This transfer of control of development from maternal to zygotic products is referred to as the midblastula transition (or MBT). It is believed that the degradation of maternal transcripts is required to terminate maternal control of development and to allow zygotic control of development to begin. Until now this process of maternal transcript degradation and the subsequent timing of the MBT has been poorly understood. I have demonstrated that in the early embryo there are two independent RNA degradation pathways, either of which is sufficient for transcript elimination. However, only the concerted action of both pathways leads to elimination of transcripts with the correct timing, at the MBT. The first pathway is maternally encoded, is triggered by egg activation, and is targeted to specific classes of mRNAs through cis-acting elements in the 3' untranslated region (UTR}. The second pathway is activated 2 hr after fertilization and functions together with the maternal pathway to ensure that transcripts are degraded by the MBT. In addition, some transcripts fail to degrade at select subcellular locations adding an element of spatial control to RNA degradation. The spatial control of RNA degradation is achieved by protecting, or masking, transcripts from the degradation machinery. The RNA degradation and protection events are regulated by distinct cis-elements in the 3' untranslated region (UTR). These results provide the first systematic dissection of this highly conserved process in development and demonstrate that RNA degradation is a novel mechanism used for both temporal and spatial control of development.

Tunable heparan sulfate glycomimetics for modulating chemokine activity

Heparan sulfate (HS) glycosaminoglycans participate in critical biological processes by modulating the activity of a diverse set of protein binding partners. Such proteins include all known members of the chemokine superfamily, which are thought to guide the migration of distinct subsets of immune cells through their interactions with HS proteoglycans on endothelial cell surfaces. Animal-derived heparin polysaccharides have been shown to reduce inflammation levels through the inhibition of HS-chemokine interactions; however, the clinical usage of heparin as an anti-inflammatory drug is hampered by its anticoagulant activity and potential risk for side effects, such as heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT).

Here, we describe an expedient, divergent synthesis to prepare defined glycomimetics of HS that recapitulate the macromolecular structure and biological activity of natural HS glycosaminoglycans. Our synthetic approach uses a core disaccharide precursor to generate a library of four differentially sulfated polymers. We show that a trisulfated glycopolymer antagonizes the chemotactic activities of pro-inflammatory chemokine RANTES with similar potency as heparin polysaccharide, without potentiating the anticoagulant activities of antithrombin III. The same glycopolymer also inhibited the homeostatic chemokine SDF-1 with significantly more efficacy than heparin. Our work offers a general strategy for modulating chemokines and dissecting the pleiotropic functions of HS/heparin through the presentation of defined sulfation motifs within multivalent polymeric scaffolds.

Excreção urinária de glicosaminoglicanos em crianças com bexiga neurogênica secundária a mielomeningocele

A excreção urinária de glicosaminoglicanos (GAG) está alterada em várias patologias do trato urinário; o padrão de excreção pode estar associado com o estado da doença. A excreção urinária de GAG em crianças com bexiga neurogênica (BN) secundária a mielomeningocele (MMC) pode também estar alterada, mas até a presente data não há detalhamento epidemiológico dos pacientes e não se correlacionou o padrão de excreção com grau de disfunção vesical. Analisamos a excreção urinária de um grupo bem definido de crianças com MMC e correlacionamos os resultados com escore cistométrico. As amostras de urina de 17 pacientes com MMC, 10 meninos e 7 meninas (média de idade DP de 4,6 2,9 anos) foram obtidas durante o exame cistométrico. As amostras do grupo controle foram obtidas de 18 crianças normais, 13 meninos e 5 meninas (6,9 2,2 anos). Todas as crianças não estavam com infecção urinária, tinham função renal normal e não estavam sob tratamento farmacológico. A quantificação do GAG urinário total foi expressa em μg de ácido hexurônico / mg de creatinina e a proporção dos diferentes tipos de GAGs sulfatados foi obtida por eletroforese em gel de agarose. A avaliação cistométrica foi realizada utilizando aparelho de urodinâmica Dynapack modelo MPX816 (Dynamed, São Paulo, Brasil), a partir da qual o escore cistométrico foi calculado de acordo com procedimento recente publicado. [14]. Não observamos diferença significativa na excreção urinária de GAG total entre meninos e meninas tanto no grupo com MMC ( 0,913 0,528 vs 0,867 0,434, p>0,05) como no grupo controle (0,546 0,240 vs 0,699 0,296, p>0,05). Os resultados mostraram também que a excreção de GAG urinário não se correlacionou com a idade tanto no grupo com MMC ( r = -0,28, p> 0,05) como no grupo controle (r = -0,40, p> 0,05). Entretanto, a comparação dos dois grupos mostrou que o grupo com MMC excretava 52% a mais de GAG total que o grupo controle (0,894 0,477 vs 0,588 0,257, p <0,04). Nesses pacientes a excreção de GAG total não se correlacionou com a complacência vesical isoladamente (r = -0,18, p> 0,05) mas foi significativa e negativamente correlacionada ao escore cistométrico (r= -0,56, p<0,05). Em média, os pacientes com piores escores (<9) excretaram 81% a mais de GAG que os pacientes com melhor escore (>9) (1,157 0,467 vs 0,639 0,133, p<0,04). O sulfato de condroitin foi o GAG sulfatado predominante nos grupos neurogênico e controles (92,5 7,6% vs 96,4 4,8%, respectivamente, p> 0,05), enquanto o sulfato do heparan estava presente em quantidades marcadamente menores; o dermatam sulfato não foi detectado. A excreção urinária de GAG em pacientes com MMC é significativamente maior que a excreção das crianças normais e os altos valores encontrados estão correlacionados a um maior compromentimento da função vesical. Evidências em modelos animais com MMC induzida sugerem que alterações no detrusor estão associadas a um elevado turnover da matriz extra celular (MEC) vesical, o que pode explicar a elevada excreção de GAG nos pacientes com MMC. Além disso, esses resultados indicam que a excreção urinária de GAG pode ser usada como fator adjuvante para a caracterização da disfunção vesical em pacientes com MMC.

Phase variations and phase shift in a TE011 mode microwave cavity used for in a miniature Rb fountain frequency standard

It is the first time in China that the phase variations and phase shift of microwave cavity in a miniature Rb fountain frequency standard are studied, considering the effect of imperfect metallic walls. Wall losses in the microwave cavity lead to small traveling wave components that deliver power from the cavity feed to the walls of cavity. The small traveling wave components produce a microradian distribution of phase throughout the cavity ity, and therefore distributed cavity phase shifts need to be considered. The microwave cavity is a TE011 circular cylinder copper cavity, with round cut-hole of end plates (14mm in diameter) for access for the atomic flux and two small apertures in the center of the side wall for coupling in microwave power. After attenuation alpha is calculated, field variations in cavity are solved. The field variations of the cavity are given. At the same time, the influences of loaded quality factor QL and diameter/height (2a/d) of the microwave cavity on the phase variations and phase shift are considered. According to the phase variation and phase shift of microwave cavity we select the parameters of cavity, diameter 2a = 69.2mm, height d = 34.6mm, QL = 5000, which will result in an uncertainty delta(Delta f / f0 ) < 4.7 x 10(-17) and meets the requirement for the miniature Rb fountain frequency standard with accuracy 10(-15).

Composição da matriz extracelular do ligamento cardinal de mulheres na pós-menopausa com e sem prolapso uterino

O prolapso uterino tem sua incidência aumentada na pós-menopausa. O objetivo deste estudo é identificar as alterações na matriz extracelular do ligamento cardinal associadas à menopausa e ao prolapso uterino. Ligamento cardinal de três diferentes grupos de mulheres, pré-menopausa, prolapso uterino e pós-menopausa, foram identificados e biopsiados durante 57 histerectomias abdominais ou vaginais. As amostras foram processadas por métodos bioquímicos para caracterização e quantificação de glicosaminoglicanos sulfatados e colágeno. As concentrações relativas de glicosaminoglicanos foram obtidas por eletroforese. Procedimentos histológicos foram feitos para identificar fibras elásticas (Weigert), distribuição de colágeno (Picro Sirius) e decorin (imunohistoquímica). Nossos resultados mostraram aumento na concentração de GAG de 72,2%, redução na concentração de colágeno de 37% e diminuição de 22% de fibras elásticas no grupo de prolapso uterino quando comparado ao grupo da pós-menopausa (p<0,05, p<0,04 e p<0,05 respectivamente). As concentrações relativas de glicosaminoglicanos sulfatados para condroitin sulfato, heparan sulfato e dermatan sulfato não mostraram diferenças entre os três grupos. A organização do colágeno foi similar entre os três grupos e a marcação do decorin pareceu estar diminuída no grupo de prolapso uterino. Nossos resultados indicam alterações no metabolismo do tecido conjuntivo. O ligamento cardinal da mulher na pós-menopausa possui uma matriz extracelular mais densa. Esta alteração não ocorre na mulher com prolapso uterino.

Análise da composição da matriz extracelular das camadas urotelial e muscular da bexiga de mulheres em diferentes idades

A complacência da bexiga depende de músculos lisos, fibras colágenas, fibras elásiticas e suas relações. O objetivo deste trabalho é determinar a composição da matriz extracelular em amostras de bexigas normais através de análise bioquímica de colágeno e glicosaminoglicanos em amostras obtidas de mulheres em diferentes grupos de idade, analisando separadamente as camadas urotelial e muscular. Avaliamos 17 amostras de bexiga divididas em três grupos: infância (N=5), menacme (N=6) e pós-menopausa (N=6). As bexigas foram analisadas para concentração de GAG total e colágeno e para análise qualitativa de GAG por eletroforese em gel de agarose. Na camada muscular, não houve diferença entre os grupos tanto para GAG quanto para colágeno. Na camada urotelial, a análise da concentração de colágeno não mostrou diferença entre os grupos, mas a concentração de GAG no grupo da pós-menopausa (0.21 0.12 μg de ácido hexurônico/mg de tecido seco) apresentou diferença em relação aos grupos do menacme (1.78 1.62 μg de ácido hexurônico/mg de tecido seco) e da infância ( 2.29 1.32 μg de ácido hexurônico/mg de tecido seco).Nosso trabalho concluiu que a concentração de GAG está substancialmente diminuída na camada urotelial da bexiga de mulheres na pós-menopausa.

以慢原子束方式进行原子转移的双磁光阱系统

建立了一套用于玻色．爱因斯坦凝聚实验的铷原子双磁光阱装置．从低速强源中获得慢原子柬，向超高真空磁光阱进行原子转移．低速强源磁光阱与超高真空磁光阱之间可维持3个量级的压强差，超高真空磁光阱的真空度最高可达1×10^-9Pa．慢原子束的束流通量达1×10^9／s．约4×10^8个^17Rb原子被装载到超高真空磁光阱中．还讨论了两种典型情况下磁光阱中装载的最大原子数．

Guiding neutral atoms with two current-carrying wires and a vertical bias field on the atom chip

We demonstrate the guiding of neutral atoms with two parallel microfabricated current-carrying wires on the atom chip and a vertical magnetic bias field. The atoms are guided along a magnetic field minimum parallel to the current-carrying wires and confined in the other two directions. We describe in detail how the precooled atoms are efficiently loaded into the two-wire guide. We present a detailed experimental study of the motional properties of the atoms in the guide and the relationship between the location of the guide and the vertical bias field. This two-wire guide with vertical bias field can be used to realize large area atom interferometer.

Sensing and Actuation from Biology to Electronics

We introduce an in vitro diagnostic magnetic biosensing platform for immunoassay and nucleic acid detection. The platform has key characteristics for a point-of-use (POU) diagnostic: portability, low-power consumption, low cost, and multiplexing capability. As a demonstration of capabilities, we use this platform for the room temperature, amplification-free detection of a 31 bp DNA oligomer and interferon-gamma (a protein relevant for tuberculosis diagnosis). Reliable assay measurements down to 100 pM for the DNA and 1 pM for the protein are demonstrated. We introduce a novel "magnetic freezing" technique for baseline measurement elimination and to enable spatial multiplexing. We have created a general protocol for adapting integrated circuit (IC) sensors to any of hundreds of commercially available immunoassay kits and custom designed DNA sequences.

We also introduce a method for immunotherapy treatment of malignant gliomas. We utilize leukocytes internalized with immunostimulatory nanoparticle-oligonucleotide conjugates to localize and retain immune cells near the tumor site. As a proof-of-principle, we develop a novel cell imaging and incubation chamber for in vitro magnetic motility experiments. We use the apparatus to demonstrate the controlled movement of magnetically loaded THP-1 leukocytes.

Finally, we introduce an IC transmitter and power ampli er (PA) that utilizes electronic digital infrastructure, sensors, and actuators to self-heal and adapt to process, dynamic, and environmental variation. Traditional IC design has achieved incredible degrees of reliability by ensuring that billions of transistors on a single IC die are all simultaneously functional. Reliability becomes increasingly difficult as the size of a transistor shrinks. Self-healing can mitigate these variations.

Investigations of DNA-mediated protein oxidation

DNA charge transport (CT) involves the efficient transfer of electrons or electron holes through the DNA π-stack over long molecular distances of at least 100 base-pairs. Despite this shallow distance dependence, DNA CT is sensitive to mismatches or lesions that disrupt π-stacking and is critically dependent on proper electronic coupling of the donor and acceptor moieties into the base stack. Favorable DNA CT is very rapid, occurring on the picosecond timescale. Because of this speed, electron holes equilibrate along the DNA π-stack, forming a characteristic pattern of DNA damage at low oxidation potential guanine multiplets. Furthermore, DNA CT may be used in a biological context. DNA processing enzymes with 4Fe4S clusters can perform DNA-mediated electron transfer (ET) self-exchange reactions with other 4Fe4S cluster proteins, even if the proteins are quite dissimilar, as long as the DNA-bound [4Fe4S]^3+/2+ redox potentials are conserved. This mechanism would allow low copy number DNA repair proteins to find their lesions efficiently within the cell. DNA CT may also be used biologically for the long-range, selective activation of redox-active transcription factors. Within this work, we pursue other proteins that may utilize DNA CT within the cell and further elucidate aspects of the DNA-mediated ET self-exchange reaction of 4Fe4S cluster proteins.

Dps proteins, bacterial mini-ferritins that protect DNA from oxidative stress, are implicated in the survival and virulence of pathogenic bacteria. One aspect of their protection involves ferroxidase activity, whereby ferrous iron is bound and oxidized selectively by hydrogen peroxide, thereby preventing formation of damaging hydroxyl radicals via Fenton chemistry. Understanding the specific mechanism by which Dps proteins protect the bacterial genome could inform the development of new antibiotics. We investigate whether DNA-binding E. coli Dps can utilize DNA CT to protect the genome from a distance. An intercalating ruthenium photooxidant was employed to generate oxidative DNA damage via the flash-quench technique, which localizes to a low potential guanine triplet. We find that Dps loaded with ferrous iron, in contrast to Apo-Dps and ferric iron-loaded Dps which lack available reducing equivalents, significantly attenuates the yield of oxidative DNA damage at the guanine triplet. These data demonstrate that ferrous iron-loaded Dps is selectively oxidized to fill guanine radical holes, thereby restoring the integrity of the DNA. Luminescence studies indicate no direct interaction between the ruthenium photooxidant and Dps, supporting the DNA-mediated oxidation of ferrous iron-loaded Dps. Thus DNA CT may be a mechanism by which Dps efficiently protects the genome of pathogenic bacteria from a distance.

Further work focused on spectroscopic characterization of the DNA-mediated oxidation of ferrous iron-loaded Dps. X-band EPR was used to monitor the oxidation of DNA-bound Dps after DNA photooxidation via the flash-quench technique. Upon irradiation with poly(dGdC)₂, a signal arises with g = 4.3, consistent with the formation of mononuclear high-spin Fe(III) sites of low symmetry, the expected oxidation product of Dps with one iron bound at each ferroxidase site. When poly(dGdC)₂ is substituted with poly(dAdT)₂, the yield of Dps oxidation is decreased significantly, indicating that guanine radicals facilitate Dps oxidation. The more favorable oxidation of Dps by guanine radicals supports the feasibility of a long-distance protection mechanism via DNA CT where Dps is oxidized to fill guanine radical holes in the bacterial genome produced by reactive oxygen species.

We have also explored possible electron transfer intermediates in the DNA-mediated oxidation of ferrous iron-loaded Dps. Dps proteins contain a conserved tryptophan residue in close proximity to the ferroxidase site (W52 in E. coli Dps). In comparison to WT Dps, in EPR studies of the oxidation of ferrous iron-loaded Dps following DNA photooxidation, W52Y and W52A mutants were deficient in forming the characteristic EPR signal at g = 4.3, with a larger deficiency for W52A compared to W52Y. In addition to EPR, we also probed the role of W52 Dps in cells using a hydrogen peroxide survival assay. Bacteria containing W52Y Dps survived the hydrogen peroxide challenge more similarly to those containing WT Dps, whereas cells with W52A Dps died off as quickly as cells without Dps. Overall, these results suggest the possibility of W52 as a CT hopping intermediate.

DNA-modified electrodes have become an essential tool for the study of the redox chemistry of DNA processing enzymes with 4Fe4S clusters. In many cases, it is necessary to investigate different complex samples and substrates in parallel in order to elucidate this chemistry. Therefore, we optimized and characterized a multiplexed electrochemical platform with the 4Fe4S cluster base excision repair glycosylase Endonuclease III (EndoIII). Closely packed DNA films, where the protein has limited surface accessibility, produce EndoIII electrochemical signals sensitive to an intervening mismatch, indicating a DNA-mediated process. Multiplexed analysis allowed more robust characterization of the CT-deficient Y82A EndoIII mutant, as well as comparison of a new family of mutations altering the electrostatics surrounding the 4Fe4S cluster in an effort to shift the reduction potential of the cluster. While little change in the DNA-bound midpoint potential was found for this family of mutants, likely indicating the dominant effect of DNA-binding on establishing the protein redox potential, significant variations in the efficiency of DNA-mediated electron transfer were apparent. On the basis of the stability of these proteins, examined by circular dichroism, we proposed that the electron transfer pathway in EndoIII can be perturbed not only by the removal of aromatic residues but also through changes in solvation near the cluster.

While the 4Fe4S cluster of EndoIII is relatively insensitive to oxidation and reduction in solution, we have found that upon DNA binding, the reduction potential of the [4Fe4S]^3+/2+ couple shifts negatively by approximately 200 mV, bringing this couple into a physiologically relevant range. Demonstrated using electrochemistry experiments in the presence and absence of DNA, these studies do not provide direct molecular evidence for the species being observed. Sulfur K-edge X-ray absorbance spectroscopy (XAS) can be used to probe directly the covalency of iron-sulfur clusters, which is correlated to their reduction potential. We have shown that the Fe-S covalency of the 4Fe4S cluster of EndoIII increases upon DNA binding, stabilizing the oxidized [4Fe4S]³⁺ cluster, consistent with a negative shift in reduction potential. The 7% increase in Fe-S covalency corresponds to an approximately 150 mV shift, remarkably similar to DNA electrochemistry results. Therefore we have obtained direct molecular evidence for the shift in 4Fe4S reduction potential of EndoIII upon DNA binding, supporting the feasibility of our model whereby these proteins can utilize DNA CT to cooperate in order to efficiently find DNA lesions inside cells.

In conclusion, in this work we have explored the biological applications of DNA CT. We discovered that the DNA-binding bacterial ferritin Dps can protect the bacterial genome from a distance via DNA CT, perhaps contributing to pathogen survival and virulence. Furthermore, we optimized a multiplexed electrochemical platform for the study of the redox chemistry of DNA-bound 4Fe4S cluster proteins. Finally, we have used sulfur K-edge XAS to obtain direct molecular evidence for the negative shift in 4Fe4S cluster reduction potential of EndoIII upon DNA binding. These studies contribute to the understanding of DNA-mediated protein oxidation within cells.