Spatial variations at different observational scales and the seasonal distributions of stream macroalgae in a Brazilian subtropical region

We examined the relationships between environmental variations in lotic ecosystems with the seasonal dynamics of macroalgae communities at different spatial scales: drainage basin of two rivers (Rio das Pedras and Rio Marrecas), shading (open and shaded stream segments), mesohabitat (riffles and pools), and microhabitats. Data collections were made on a monthly basis between January and December/2007. A total of 16 taxa were encountered (13 species and 3 vegetative groups). All of the biotic parameters (richness, abundance, diversity, equitability, and dominance) were found to be highly variable at all of the spatial scales evaluated. On the other hand, abiotic variables demonstrated differences only at mesohabitat (in terms of current velocity) and shaded habitat (in terms of irradiance) scales. The seasonality of the macroalgae community structure was strongly influenced by microhabitat variables (current velocity, substrate H', and irradiance), demonstrating their importance over time and at different scales. Regional variables (temperature, oxygen saturation, specific conductance, pH, and turbidity) were found to have little influence on the temporal dynamics of the macroalgae communities evaluated.

Ecological distribution of stream macroalgae in different spatial scales using taxonomic and morphological groups

We examined the ecological distribution of macroalgal communities in streams using species groups (taxonomic units = algal phyla, and morphological = morphological types) with similar structures and functions instead of the species themselves. The study was conducted from June to July/2007 in two drainage basins located in mid-southern region of Paraná State , Brazil. Evaluations of macroalgal communities took into consideration the following spatial scales: the drainage basin (the Pedras river and Marrecas river basins), shading regime (open and shaded stream segments), mesohabitats (riffles and pools), and microhabitats (sampling units of 0.05m2). A total of 29 taxa (23 subgeneric, one generic, and five vegetative groups) were identified. On these, 12 taxa belong to Chlorophyta, 11 to Cyanobacteria, four to Heterokontophyta, and two to Rhodophyta. The proportions of morphological types were: 24% free filaments, 17.25% mats, tufts, gelatinous colonies, and gelatinous filaments, 7% crusts. In terms of spatial scales, we observed a predominance of Chlorophyta in open stream segments and Cyanobacteria in shaded stream segments, reflecting the loss of competitive advantage of green algae in sites with low energy availability. In the mesohabitats, the morphological types recorded in pools were predominantly poorly adapted to fast currents (free filaments), while those found in riffles (mats, tufts and gelatinous filaments) were highly resistant to fast water flows. As such, the use of species groupings based on algal taxonomy associated with morphological characteristics proved to be useful to understanding the distributions of these organisms in lotic environments.

Narrow-band 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 16 and 24 cycles/360º angular frequency filters

We measured human frequency response functions for seven angular frequency filters whose test frequencies were centered at 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 16 or 24 cycles/360º using a supra-threshold summation method. The seven functions of 17 experimental conditions each were measured nine times for five observers. For the arbitrarily selected filter phases, the maximum summation effect occurred at test frequency for filters at 1, 2, 3, 4 and 8 cycles/360º. For both 16 and 24 cycles/360º test frequencies, maximum summation occurred at the lower harmonics. These results allow us to conclude that there are narrow-band angular frequency filters operating somehow in the human visual system either through summation or inhibition of specific frequency ranges. Furthermore, as a general result, it appears that addition of higher angular frequencies to lower ones disturbs low angular frequency perception (i.e., 1, 2, 3 and 4 cycles/360º), whereas addition of lower harmonics to higher ones seems to improve detection of high angular frequency harmonics (i.e., 8, 16 and 24 cycles/360º). Finally, we discuss the possible involvement of coupled radial and angular frequency filters in face perception using an example where narrow-band low angular frequency filters could have a major role.

Effect of asthma severity on symptom perception in childhood asthma

Individual ability to perceive airway obstruction varies substantially. The factors influencing the perception of asthma are probably numerous and not well established in children. The present study was designed to examine the influence of asthma severity, use of preventive medication, age and gender on the association between respiratory symptoms (RS) and peak expiratory flow (PEF) rates in asthmatic children. We followed 92 asthmatic children, aged 6 to 16 years, for five months. Symptom scores were recorded daily and PEF was measured twice a day. The correlations among variables at the within-person level over time were analyzed for each child and for the pooled data by multivariate analysis. After pooling the data, there was a significant (P<0.05) correlation between each symptom and PEF; 60% of the children were accurate perceivers (defined by a statistically significant correlation between symptoms and PEF across time) for diurnal symptoms and 37% for nocturnal symptoms. The accuracy of perception was independent of asthma severity, age, gender or the use of preventive medication. Symptom perception is inaccurate in a substantial number of asthmatic children, independently of clinical severity, age, gender or use of preventive medication. It is not clear why some asthmatic patients are capable of accurately perceiving the severity of airway obstruction while others are not.

Contrast sensitivity to radial frequencies modulated by Jn and j n Bessel profiles

We measured human contrast sensitivity to radial frequencies modulated by cylindrical (Jo) and spherical (j o) Bessel profiles. We also measured responses to profiles of j o, j1, j2, j4, j8, and j16. Functions were measured three times by at least three of eight observers using a forced-choice method. The results conform to our expectations that sensitivity would be higher for cylindrical profiles. We also observed that contrast sensitivity is increased with the j n order for n greater than zero, having distinct orderly effects at the low and high frequency ends. For n = 0, 1, 2, and 4 sensitivity tended to occur around 0.8-1.0 cpd while for n = 8 and 16 it seemed to shift gradually to 0.8-3.0 cpd. We interpret these results as being consistent with the possibility that spatial frequency processing by the human visual system can be defined a priori in terms of polar coordinates and discuss its application to study face perception.

JNK regulates dendrite and spine architecture in the central nervous system influencing spatial learning and motor tasks

JNK1 is a MAP-kinase that has proven a significant player in the central nervous system. It regulates brain development and the maintenance of dendrites and axons. Several novel phosphorylation targets of JNK1 were identified in a screen performed in the Coffey lab. These proteins were mainly involved in the regulation of neuronal cytoskeleton, influencing the dynamics and stability of microtubules and actin. These structural proteins form the dynamic backbone for the elaborate architecture of the dendritic tree of a neuron. The initiation and branching of the dendrites requires a dynamic interplay between the cytoskeletal building blocks. Both microtubules and actin are decorated by associated proteins which regulate their dynamics. The dendrite-specific, high molecular weight microtubule associated protein 2 (MAP2) is an abundant protein in the brain, the binding of which stabilizes microtubules and influences their bundling. Its expression in non-neuronal cells induces the formation of neurite-like processes from the cell body, and its function is highly regulated by phosphorylation. JNK1 was shown to phosphorylate the proline-rich domain of MAP2 in vivo in a previous study performed in the group. Here we verify three threonine residues (T1619, T1622 and T1625) as JNK1 targets, the phosphorylation of which increases the binding of MAP2 to microtubules. This binding stabilizes the microtubules and increases process formation in non-neuronal cells. Phosphorylation-site mutants were engineered in the lab. The non-phosphorylatable mutant of MAP2 (MAP2- T1619A, T1622A, T1625A) in these residues fails to bind microtubules, while the pseudo-phosphorylated form, MAP2- T1619D, T1622D, Thr1625D, efficiently binds and induces process formation even without the presence of active JNK1. Ectopic expression of the MAP2- T1619D, T1622D, Thr1625D in vivo in mouse brain led to a striking increase in the branching of cortical layer 2/3 (L2/3) pyramidal neurons, compared to MAP2-WT. The dendritic complexity defines the receptive field of a neuron and dictates the output to the postsynaptic cells. Previous studies in the group indicated altered dendrite architecture of the pyramidal neurons in the Jnk1-/- mouse motor cortex. Here, we used Lucifer Yellow loading and Sholl analysis of neurons in order to study the dendritic branching in more detail. We report a striking, opposing effect in the absence of Jnk1 in the cortical layers 2/3 and 5 of the primary motor cortex. The basal dendrites of pyramidal neurons close to the pial surface at L2/3 show a reduced complexity. In contrast, the L5 neurons, which receive massive input from the L2/3 neurons, show greatly increased branching. Another novel substrate identified for JNK1 was MARCKSL1, a protein that regulates actin dynamics. It is highly expressed in neurons, but also in various cancer tissues. Three phosphorylation target residues for JNK1 were identified, and it was demonstrated that their phosphorylation reduces actin turnover and retards migration of these cells. Actin is the main cytoskeletal component in dendritic spines, the site of most excitatory synapses in pyramidal neurons. The density and gross morphology of the Lucifer Yellow filled dendrites were characterized and we show reduced density and altered morphology of spines in the motor cortex and in the hippocampal area CA3. The dynamic dendritic spines are widely considered to function as the cellular correlate during learning. We used a Morris water maze to test spatial memory. Here, the wild-type mice outperformed the knock-out mice during the acquisition phase of the experiment indicating impaired special memory. The L5 pyramidal neurons of the motor cortex project to the spinal cord and regulate the movement of distinct muscle groups. Thus the altered dendrite morphology in the motor cortex was expected to have an effect on the input-output balance in the signaling from the cortex to the lower motor circuits. A battery of behavioral tests were conducted for the wild-type and Jnk1-/- mice, and the knock-outs performed poorly compared to wild-type mice in tests assessing balance and fine motor movements. This study expands our knowledge of JNK1 as an important regulator of the dendritic fields of neurons and their manifestations in behavior.

The modulation of simple reaction time by the spatial probability of a visual stimulus

Simple reaction time (SRT) in response to visual stimuli can be influenced by many stimulus features. The speed and accuracy with which observers respond to a visual stimulus may be improved by prior knowledge about the stimulus location, which can be obtained by manipulating the spatial probability of the stimulus. However, when higher spatial probability is achieved by holding constant the stimulus location throughout successive trials, the resulting improvement in performance can also be due to local sensory facilitation caused by the recurrent spatial location of a visual target (position priming). The main objective of the present investigation was to quantitatively evaluate the modulation of SRT by the spatial probability structure of a visual stimulus. In two experiments the volunteers had to respond as quickly as possible to the visual target presented on a computer screen by pressing an optic key with the index finger of the dominant hand. Experiment 1 (N = 14) investigated how SRT changed as a function of both the different levels of spatial probability and the subject's explicit knowledge about the precise probability structure of visual stimulation. We found a gradual decrease in SRT with increasing spatial probability of a visual target regardless of the observer's previous knowledge concerning the spatial probability of the stimulus. Error rates, below 2%, were independent of the spatial probability structure of the visual stimulus, suggesting the absence of a speed-accuracy trade-off. Experiment 2 (N = 12) examined whether changes in SRT in response to a spatially recurrent visual target might be accounted for simply by sensory and temporally local facilitation. The findings indicated that the decrease in SRT brought about by a spatially recurrent target was associated with its spatial predictability, and could not be accounted for solely in terms of sensory priming.

Spatial modeling techniques for mapping and characterization of acid sulfate soils

Acid sulfate (a.s.) soils constitute a major environmental issue. Severe ecological damage results from the considerable amounts of acidity and metals leached by these soils in the recipient watercourses. As even small hot spots may affect large areas of coastal waters, mapping represents a fundamental step in the management and mitigation of a.s. soil environmental risks (i.e. to target strategic areas). Traditional mapping in the field is time-consuming and therefore expensive. Additional more cost-effective techniques have, thus, to be developed in order to narrow down and define in detail the areas of interest. The primary aim of this thesis was to assess different spatial modeling techniques for a.s. soil mapping, and the characterization of soil properties relevant for a.s. soil environmental risk management, using all available data: soil and water samples, as well as datalayers (e.g. geological and geophysical). Different spatial modeling techniques were applied at catchment or regional scale. Two artificial neural networks were assessed on the Sirppujoki River catchment (c. 440 km2) located in southwestern Finland, while fuzzy logic was assessed on several areas along the Finnish coast. Quaternary geology, aerogeophysics and slope data (derived from a digital elevation model) were utilized as evidential datalayers. The methods also required the use of point datasets (i.e. soil profiles corresponding to known a.s. or non-a.s. soil occurrences) for training and/or validation within the modeling processes. Applying these methods, various maps were generated: probability maps for a.s. soil occurrence, as well as predictive maps for different soil properties (sulfur content, organic matter content and critical sulfide depth). The two assessed artificial neural networks (ANNs) demonstrated good classification abilities for a.s. soil probability mapping at catchment scale. Slightly better results were achieved using a Radial Basis Function (RBF) -based ANN than a Radial Basis Functional Link Net (RBFLN) method, narrowing down more accurately the most probable areas for a.s. soil occurrence and defining more properly the least probable areas. The RBF-based ANN also demonstrated promising results for the characterization of different soil properties in the most probable a.s. soil areas at catchment scale. Since a.s. soil areas constitute highly productive lands for agricultural purpose, the combination of a probability map with more specific soil property predictive maps offers a valuable toolset to more precisely target strategic areas for subsequent environmental risk management. Notably, the use of laser scanning (i.e. Light Detection And Ranging, LiDAR) data enabled a more precise definition of a.s. soil probability areas, as well as the soil property modeling classes for sulfur content and the critical sulfide depth. Given suitable training/validation points, ANNs can be trained to yield a more precise modeling of the occurrence of a.s. soils and their properties. By contrast, fuzzy logic represents a simple, fast and objective alternative to carry out preliminary surveys, at catchment or regional scale, in areas offering a limited amount of data. This method enables delimiting and prioritizing the most probable areas for a.s soil occurrence, which can be particularly useful in the field. Being easily transferable from area to area, fuzzy logic modeling can be carried out at regional scale. Mapping at this scale would be extremely time-consuming through manual assessment. The use of spatial modeling techniques enables the creation of valid and comparable maps, which represents an important development within the a.s. soil mapping process. The a.s. soil mapping was also assessed using water chemistry data for 24 different catchments along the Finnish coast (in all, covering c. 21,300 km2) which were mapped with different methods (i.e. conventional mapping, fuzzy logic and an artificial neural network). Two a.s. soil related indicators measured in the river water (sulfate content and sulfate/chloride ratio) were compared to the extent of the most probable areas for a.s. soils in the surveyed catchments. High sulfate contents and sulfate/chloride ratios measured in most of the rivers demonstrated the presence of a.s. soils in the corresponding catchments. The calculated extent of the most probable a.s. soil areas is supported by independent data on water chemistry, suggesting that the a.s. soil probability maps created with different methods are reliable and comparable.

Radial frequency stimuli and sine-wave gratings seem to be processed by distinct contrast brain mechanisms

An assumption commonly made in the study of visual perception is that the lower the contrast threshold for a given stimulus, the more sensitive and selective will be the mechanism that processes it. On the basis of this consideration, we investigated contrast thresholds for two classes of stimuli: sine-wave gratings and radial frequency stimuli (i.e., j0 targets or stimuli modulated by spherical Bessel functions). Employing a suprathreshold summation method, we measured the selectivity of spatial and radial frequency filters using either sine-wave gratings or j0 target contrast profiles at either 1 or 4 cycles per degree of visual angle (cpd), as the test frequencies. Thus, in a forced-choice trial, observers chose between a background spatial (or radial) frequency alone and the given background stimulus plus the test frequency (1 or 4 cpd sine-wave grating or radial frequency). Contrary to our expectations, the results showed elevated thresholds (i.e., inhibition) for sine-wave gratings and decreased thresholds (i.e., summation) for radial frequencies when background and test frequencies were identical. This was true for both 1- and 4-cpd test frequencies. This finding suggests that sine-wave gratings and radial frequency stimuli are processed by different quasi-linear systems, one working at low luminance and contrast level (sine-wave gratings) and the other at high luminance and contrast levels (radial frequency stimuli). We think that this interpretation is consistent with distinct foveal only and foveal-parafoveal mechanisms involving striate and/or other higher visual areas (i.e., V2 and V4).

Oxidative stress: molecular perception and transduction of signals triggering antioxidant gene defenses

Molecular oxygen (O2) is the premier biological electron acceptor that serves vital roles in fundamental cellular functions. However, with the beneficial properties of O2 comes the inadvertent formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide (O2·-), hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radical (OH·). If unabated, ROS pose a serious threat to or cause the death of aerobic cells. To minimize the damaging effects of ROS, aerobic organisms evolved non-enzymatic and enzymatic antioxidant defenses. The latter include catalases, peroxidases, superoxide dismutases, and glutathione S-transferases (GST). Cellular ROS-sensing mechanisms are not well understood, but a number of transcription factors that regulate the expression of antioxidant genes are well characterized in prokaryotes and in yeast. In higher eukaryotes, oxidative stress responses are more complex and modulated by several regulators. In mammalian systems, two classes of transcription factors, nuclear factor kB and activator protein-1, are involved in the oxidative stress response. Antioxidant-specific gene induction, involved in xenobiotic metabolism, is mediated by the "antioxidant responsive element" (ARE) commonly found in the promoter region of such genes. ARE is present in mammalian GST, metallothioneine-I and MnSod genes, but has not been found in plant Gst genes. However, ARE is present in the promoter region of the three maize catalase (Cat) genes. In plants, ROS have been implicated in the damaging effects of various environmental stress conditions. Many plant defense genes are activated in response to these conditions, including the three maize Cat and some of the superoxide dismutase (Sod) genes.

How to increase brand quality perception with audiovisual content? : Exploring the role of emotions in B2C and B2B contexts

This study discusses how audiovisual content can influence brand quality perceptions. The purpose of this study is to explore how audiovisual content creation can increase brand quality perceptions. This research problem is addressed with three sub questions, which aim at clarifying the role of emotions between content marketing and brand quality perception, explaining how different functions of audiovisual content can increase brand quality perception, and by identifying and comparing the key differences in content creation in business-to-consumer and business-to-businesscontexts. The theoretical background of the study is in brand personality, consumer emotions, consumerbrand relationships, content marketing and B2B branding literature. The empirical research part includes a single-case study. The case company was a Swiss startup that wished to build a highquality brand for both B2C and B2B segments. The empirical data was collected in September 2014. Eight interviews were conducted; seven with target segment representatives and one with an existing customer of the case company. The empirical findings were analyzed with thematic analysis and finally a 5-stage framework was created based on the findings of the research, offering a guideline for high-quality content creation. This study finds that emotions play an important role in brand quality perceptions. Psychological processes, emotion, cognition and conation, influence the engagement process of the target segment which ultimately can lead to activation and electronic word-of-mouth. Brand quality perception is the result of the overall emotion of the brand. The overall emotion derives from brand personality, brand concept, product attributes and utilitarian benefits of the brand. The entertaining and educational functions of the audiovisual content can target and evoke these emotional processes, and result in increased quality perceptions. In the B2B context, emotions are found to play a relatively smaller role in the quality perception processes. However, the significance of emotions cannot be ignored, since they can emphasize the value for the buying organization, and build on the trust and loyalty among the potential customers. The final framework presents five stages of content creation that ultimately improve brand quality perceptions. These stages help marketers to design and implement their content and evoke positive emotions in their target segment as part of a quality-based marketing strategy. Further research is warranted to quantitatively test the generalizability of the framework. Further research is also suggested to make the framework adaptable to different stages of the brand life cycle.

Spatial and temporal variation in fish populations and assemblages in coastal waters of the northern Baltic Proper

The distribution and traits of fish are of interest both ecologically and socio-economically. In this thesis, phenotypic and structural variation in fish populations and assemblages was studied on multiple spatial and temporal scales in shallow coastal areas in the archipelago of the northern Baltic Proper. In Lumparn basin in Åland Islands, the fish assemblage displayed significant seasonal variation in depth zone distribution. The results indicate that investigating both spatial and temporal variation in small scale is crucial for understanding patterns in fish distribution and community structure in large scale. The local population of Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis L displayed habitat-specific morphological and dietary variation. Perch in the pelagic zone were on average deeper in their body shape than the littoral ones and fed on fish and benthic invertebrates. The results differ from previous studies conducted in freshwater habitats, where the pelagic perch typically are streamlined in body shape and zooplanktivorous. Stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen differed between perch with different stomach contents, suggesting differentiation of individual diet preferences. In the study areas Lumparn and Ivarskärsfjärden in Åland Islands and Galtfjärden in Swedish east coast, the development in fish assemblages during the 2000’s indicated a general shift towards higher abundances of small-bodied lower-order consumers, especially cyprinids. For European pikeperch Sander lucioperca L., recent declines in adult fish abundances and high mortalities (Z = 1.06–1.16) were observed, which suggests unsustainably high fishing pressure on pikeperch. Based on the results it can be hypothesized that fishing has reduced the abundances of large predatory fish, which together with bottom-up forcing by eutrophication has allowed the lower-order consumer species to increase in abundances. This thesis contributes to the scientific understanding of aquatic ecosystems with new descriptions on morphological and dietary adaptations in perch in brackish water, and on the seasonal variation in small-scale spatial fish distribution. The results also demonstrate anthropogenic effects on coastal fish communities and underline the urgency of further reducing nutrient inputs and regulating fisheries in the Baltic Sea region.

The Nature of Object of Perception and Its Role in the Knowledge Concerning the External World

Questions concerning perception are as old as the field of philosophy itself. Using the first-person perspective as a starting point and philosophical documents, the study examines the relationship between knowledge and perception. The problem is that of how one knows what one immediately perceives. The everyday belief that an object of perception is known to be a material object on grounds of perception is demonstrated as unreliable. It is possible that directly perceived sensible particulars are mind-internal images, shapes, sounds, touches, tastes and smells. According to the appearance/reality distinction, the world of perception is the apparent realm, not the real external world. However, the distinction does not necessarily refute the existence of the external world. We have a causal connection with the external world via mind-internal particulars, and therefore we have indirect knowledge about the external world through perceptual experience. The research especially concerns the reasons for George Berkeley’s claim that material things are mind-dependent ideas that really are perceived. The necessity of a perceiver’s own qualities for perceptual experience, such as mind, consciousness, and the brain, supports the causal theory of perception. Finally, it is asked why mind-internal entities are present when perceiving an object. Perception would not directly discern material objects without the presupposition of extra entities located between a perceiver and the external world. Nevertheless, the results show that perception is not sufficient to know what a perceptual object is, and that the existence of appearances is necessary to know that the external world is being perceived. However, the impossibility of matter does not follow from Berkeley’s theory. The main result of the research is that singular knowledge claims about the external world never refer directly and immediately to the objects of the external world. A perceiver’s own qualities affect how perceptual objects appear in a perceptual situation.

A novel polar-based human face recognition computational model

Motivated by a recently proposed biologically inspired face recognition approach, we investigated the relation between human behavior and a computational model based on Fourier-Bessel (FB) spatial patterns. We measured human recognition performance of FB filtered face images using an 8-alternative forced-choice method. Test stimuli were generated by converting the images from the spatial to the FB domain, filtering the resulting coefficients with a band-pass filter, and finally taking the inverse FB transformation of the filtered coefficients. The performance of the computational models was tested using a simulation of the psychophysical experiment. In the FB model, face images were first filtered by simulated V1- type neurons and later analyzed globally for their content of FB components. In general, there was a higher human contrast sensitivity to radially than to angularly filtered images, but both functions peaked at the 11.3-16 frequency interval. The FB-based model presented similar behavior with regard to peak position and relative sensitivity, but had a wider frequency band width and a narrower response range. The response pattern of two alternative models, based on local FB analysis and on raw luminance, strongly diverged from the human behavior patterns. These results suggest that human performance can be constrained by the type of information conveyed by polar patterns, and consequently that humans might use FB-like spatial patterns in face processing.

Methodological approaches to planar and volumetric scintigraphic imaging of small volume targets with high spatial resolution and sensitivity

Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) is a non-invasive imaging technique, which provides information reporting the functional states of tissues. SPECT imaging has been used as a diagnostic tool in several human disorders and can be used in animal models of diseases for physiopathological, genomic and drug discovery studies. However, most of the experimental models used in research involve rodents, which are at least one order of magnitude smaller in linear dimensions than man. Consequently, images of targets obtained with conventional gamma-cameras and collimators have poor spatial resolution and statistical quality. We review the methodological approaches developed in recent years in order to obtain images of small targets with good spatial resolution and sensitivity. Multipinhole, coded mask- and slit-based collimators are presented as alternative approaches to improve image quality. In combination with appropriate decoding algorithms, these collimators permit a significant reduction of the time needed to register the projections used to make 3-D representations of the volumetric distribution of target’s radiotracers. Simultaneously, they can be used to minimize artifacts and blurring arising when single pinhole collimators are used. Representation images are presented, which illustrate the use of these collimators. We also comment on the use of coded masks to attain tomographic resolution with a single projection, as discussed by some investigators since their introduction to obtain near-field images. We conclude this review by showing that the use of appropriate hardware and software tools adapted to conventional gamma-cameras can be of great help in obtaining relevant functional information in experiments using small animals.