The process of change in offender rehabilitation programmes

Whilst the overall effectiveness of offender rehabilitation programmes in reducing recidivism is now well established, there has been less discussion of the reasons why rehabilitation programmes may be unsuccessful for some offenders. In this paper we suggest that models of change developed in counselling and psychotherapy may have utility in explaining how offender rehabilitation programmes bring about change, and argue that the dominance of cognitive-behavioural treatments in the rehabilitation field means that those offenders who have particularly low levels of problem awareness may be at increased risk of treatment failure. Understanding more about the mechanisms by which programmes help offenders to desist from offending is likely to lead to the development of more responsive and, ultimately, more effective programmes. Some suggestions for those involved in the delivery of offender rehabilitation programmes include: being mindful of the sequence of components of programmes, the development of preparation (or readiness) programmes and offering a broad suite of programmes to cater for different stages of problem awareness and assimilation among offenders.

Offender rehabilitation down under

In this paper we offer an overview of reintegration policies in both Australia and New Zealand. We describe the rehabilitative practices of both countries, and their basis in the Risk—Needs—Responsivity model of offender rehabilitation, before outlining the recently developed Good Lives Model of offender rehabilitation. Our conclusion is that the model has much to offer the future development of reintegration programmes in Australasia (and elsewhere), given its ability to conceptualise the change process, and accommodate those cultural and contextual factors that are so important to the correctional population in these countries.

Assessing suitability for offender rehabilitation : development and validation of the treatment readiness questionnaire

Although the need to assess appropriate candidates for offender rehabilitation programs is widely acknowledged, few assessment tools are available that have been validated for use with offender populations. This article reports on the development and validation of a brief self-report measure designed to assess treatment readiness in offenders who have been referred to a cognitive skills program. The measure, the Corrections Victoria Treatment Readiness Questionnaire, displayed acceptable levels of convergent and discriminant validity, and was able to predict treatment engagement and treatment performance at the midpoint of the program. Suggested cutoff points are reported for use in assessing offenders for this type of program. It is concluded that the measure can play a valuable role in the assessment of offenders who are being considered for rehabilitative treatment.

Commercial sex work, survival sex, sexual violence and HIV/AIDS prevention in Arumeru District, Arusha region Of Tanzania

Objective: To examine the knowledge and practices about HIV/AIDS among female Tanzanian commercial sex workers (CSWs) and assess the contextual dynamics that prevent safer sexual behaviours.

Method: The study used mixed methods and was implemented in two phases. Phase one assessed the knowledge and practices about HIV/AIDS among CSWs. Data were obtained with 54 CSWs, who were selected by using a snowball sampling approach. Semi-structured, face-to-face interviews with the CSWs were undertaken to allow the research participants to describe and discuss their lived realities as they perceive and experience them. In phase two, three discrete focus group discussions, each comprising 6-10 women, were carried out with 26 of the 54 CSWs who were interviewed in phase one.

Results: There was exploitation and inequity in the women's lives due to the multiple and overlapping oppressions of poverty and patriarchy. Sexual violence was framed, legitimised and reinforced by structural and cultural inequities. Such exploitation impacted not only on CSWs' lives as sex workers, but on their previous and/or simultaneous lives as mothers, wives, girlfriends and daughters. The women practised ‘survival sex’ as CSWs and/or sexual partners of men, and experienced sexual violence from their clients/partners. This violence was either culturally legitimised within a patriarchal framework or manifested itself as ‘displaced aggressive sex’ by men experiencing marginalisation in socio-economic spheres.

Is sex-specific mass gain in Cory's shearwaters Calonectris diomedea related to begging and steroid hormone expression?

Mass differences between the sexes of dimorphic bird species often appear early in the nestling development. But how do adults know how much to feed a chick in a sexually dimorphic species? Do chicks of the heavier sex beg more? We studied begging in Cory’s shearwaters Calonectris diomedea, a species with heavier adult and juvenile males than females. We found that begging rates and call numbers were not different between male and female chicks, but parameters of begging intensity differed between the sexes in their relationship to chick body condition. For the same body condition, males had significantly higher begging call numbers and rates. Acoustical parameters, which were analysed semi-automatically, included the lengths of call and silence intervals, the minimum, mean and maximum frequency in a call and the number of frequency peaks within a call. We found no consistent differences of acoustic begging call elements between the sexes. Male and female chicks did not differ in the levels of the steroid hormones testosterone or corticosterone in the second quarter of the nestling period, and the mechanism leading to sex-related differences in begging rates for a given body condition remains unknown.

Single-sex classes in co-educational schools

This research investigated social and academic outcomes from single-sex classrooms in a Tasmanian coeducational government primary school. Interviews, observations and surveys formed the basis of the evidence. Teachers, parents and children reported positive benefits from the class organisation, but these differed according to gender. Staff identified increased confidence and higher self-esteem among girls, whereas boys developed increased motivation and more commitment to schoolwork. Teachers and parents noted that boys' accountability and self-discipline improved. Teachers adopted different strategies from those used with mixed-gender classes and gained higher levels of satisfaction from teaching, attributable to increased children's time 'on task'. Paradoxically, standardised school testing indicated no increase in academic achievements. However, there may be an extended lag between establishing changed social relationships and measurable academic outcomes, suggesting that if the new class structure is to achieve its full potential, it should be established early in primary school and continue to adolescence.

Problem assimilation and offender rehabilitation

Whilst the overall effectiveness of offender rehabilitation programs in reducing recidivism is now well established, there has been less discussion of the reasons why rehabilitation programs may be unsuccessful for some offenders. In this paper we suggest that the Assimilation model of change (Stiles et al., 1991) may have utility in explaining how offender rehabilitation programs bring about change, and argue that those offenders who have particularly low levels of problem awareness may be at increased risk of treatment failure. Methods of measuring problem awareness and treatment readiness are discussed along with possible methods of intervention, including the Pennebaker method.

The application of the transtheoretical model to offender populations : some critical issues

Purpose : Over the past two decades, the transtheoretical model (TTM) of change has become perhaps the most widely used model of behaviour change in the treatment of addictive and/or problem behaviours. More recently, the stages of change component of the TTM has been adopted for use in forensic settings. This paper aims to review the application of the TTM model to offender populations.

Arguments : The application of the TTM to offenders raises a number of issues regarding the process of behaviour change for offenders attending treatment programmes. It is argued that while the TTM has been designed to account for high frequency behaviour (e.g. smoking, alcohol misuse), offending behaviour may be less frequent and the process of change less cyclical. Moreover, it is suggested that the most important issue in a treatment context is the proper integration of the TTM constructs. There have been few empirical tests of this aspect of the model.

Conclusion : While the TTM may have some value in explaining how rehabilitation programmes help offenders to change their behaviour, the stages of change construct is, by itself, unlikely to adequately explain the process by which offenders desist from offending.

Offender emotion and self-regulation : implications for offender rehabilitation programming

Despite a growing body of evidence pointing to the central role of negative emotional states in the offence process, there has been relatively little work, either theoretical or applied, investigating this area. This paper offers a review of the literature that has sought to investigate the association between negative emotion and offending. It is concluded that there are grounds to consider negative emotional states as important dynamic risk factors that should be addressed as part of any psychological intervention to reduce the risk of re-offending amongst forensic clients.

Promoting forgiveness in violent offenders: A more positive approach to offender rehabilitation?

In this paper we suggest that the effectiveness of many offender rehabilitation programs may be further enhanced by the inclusion of interventions that build on existing motivation to change. Taking the example of anger management interventions delivered within the context of violent offender rehabilitation, we propose that the emphasis on positive personal change implicit in therapies designed to promote forgiveness may hold some promise. Such therapies may be useful in so far as they facilitate the development of perspective-taking skills, and assist in the therapeutic management of shame and guilt in ways that are likely to be engaging for violent offenders.