New business models for antibiotic innovation.

The increase in antibiotic resistance and the dearth of novel antibiotics have become a growing concern among policy-makers. A combination of financial, scientific, and regulatory challenges poses barriers to antibiotic innovation. However, each of these three challenges provides an opportunity to develop pathways for new business models to bring novel antibiotics to market. Pull-incentives that pay for the outputs of research and development (R&D) and push-incentives that pay for the inputs of R&D can be used to increase innovation for antibiotics. Financial incentives might be structured to promote delinkage of a company's return on investment from revenues of antibiotics. This delinkage strategy might not only increase innovation, but also reinforce rational use of antibiotics. Regulatory approval, however, should not and need not compromise safety and efficacy standards to bring antibiotics with novel mechanisms of action to market. Instead regulatory agencies could encourage development of companion diagnostics, test antibiotic combinations in parallel, and pool and make transparent clinical trial data to lower R&D costs. A tax on non-human use of antibiotics might also create a disincentive for non-therapeutic use of these drugs. Finally, the new business model for antibiotic innovation should apply the 3Rs strategy for encouraging collaborative approaches to R&D in innovating novel antibiotics: sharing resources, risks, and rewards.

The induced innovation hypothesis and energy-saving technological change

We develop a methodology for testing Hicks's induced innovation hypothesis by estimating a product-characteristics model of energy-using consumer durables, augmenting the hypothesis to allow for the influence of government regulations. For the products we explored, the evidence suggests that (i) the rate of overall innovation was independent of energy prices and regulations; (ii) the direction of innovation was responsive to energy price changes for some products but not for others; (iii) energy price changes induced changes in the subset of technically feasible models that were offered for sale; (iv) this responsiveness increased substantially during the period after energy-efficiency product labeling was required; and (v) nonetheless, a sizable portion of efficiency improvements were autonomous.

The paradox of openness revisited: Collaborative innovation and patenting by UK innovators

© 2016 The Authors.We revisit the "paradox of openness" in the literature which consists of two conflicting views on the link between patenting and open innovation-the spillover prevention and the organizational openness views. We use the data from the Survey of Innovation and Patent Use and the Community Innovation Survey (CIS6) in the UK to assess the empirical support for the distinct predictions of these theories. We argue that both patenting and external sourcing (openness) are jointly-determined decisions made by firms. Their relationship is contingent upon whether the firms are technically superior to their rivals and lead in the market or not. Leading firms are more vulnerable to unintended knowledge spillovers during collaboration as compared to followers, and consequently, the increase in patenting due to openness is higher for leaders than for followers. We develop a simple framework that allows us to formally derive the empirical implications of this hypothesis and test it by estimating whether the reduced form relationship between patenting and collaboration is stronger for leaders than for followers.

Distribución del agua en el suelo y su relación con la estructura radical y producción de biomasa de tres tipos funcionales, en un pastizal de la estepa magallánica seca, Santa Cruz

Uno de los principales aspectos del funcionamiento de los ecosistemas áridos es la dinámica del agua, que determina aspectos estructurales y funcionales, como la dominancia de tipos funcionales (Tf), fenología y productividad. Los objetivos de esta tesis fueron identificar para un pastizal xérico del sur patagónico, las principales variables ambientales que controlan la dinámica del agua en el suelo, los factores que determinan sus variaciones en el perfil (asociados a topografía y parches de vegetación) y evaluar la respuesta de los tres Tf presentes de la vegetación: gramíneas cortas (GC), gramíneas medianas (coirones) y subarbustos frente a esta variaciones temporales y espaciales. En exposiciones norte, sur y plano se midió: potencial hídrico de suelo (10, 25 y 60 cm de profundidad), potencial hídrico foliar y producción de biomasa aérea mensual de los tres Tf. Se determinó la distribución de raíces en cada Tf. y el contenido hídrico del suelo asociado a parches vegetados y de suelo desnudo. Las lluvias se distribuyeron a lo largo del año con dominancia de eventos menor a 5mm (90 por ciento) y ausencia de tormentas. Los tres Tf presentaron más del 60 por de la biomasa de raíces entre 0-10cm del suelo, siguiendo un perfil similar al del frente de mojado de las lluvias más frecuentes, mientras que capas más profundas fueron escasamente exploradas. Los parches de suelo desnudo constituyen una reserva de agua superficial durante el verano, que podría ser utilizada sólo por el subarbusto a través de raíces que se extienden lateralmente. El suelo estuvo húmedo en invierno-primavera, seco en verano y el otoño fue variable de acuerdo al año. La exposición generó un gradiente de humedad en el suelo; la exposición norte fue el extremo más xérico. Este gradiente afectó los potenciales hídricos foliares de los 3 Tf, pero sólo en GC modificó la producción de biomasa. La producción de GC constituye el principal forraje para los ovinos, y probablemente las variaciones temporales y en el paisaje se reflejen en el consumo animal y en la producción secundaria.

Exudados radicales y su efecto en la arquitectura radical de Arabidopsis thaliana

La arquitectura radical es de vital importancia para la nutrición y performance de las plantas. Está determinada genéticamente y recibe gran influencia del ambiente. En esta tesis se evaluó el efecto de los exudados radicales en la determinación de la arquitectura radical. Se trabajó en condiciones de esterilidad con plantas de Arabidopsis thaliana ecotipos Ler y Col en placas de Petri ubicadas en un cuarto de crecimiento con luz y temperatura controlada. Se incluyeron tratamientos con agregado de carbón activado (CA), asumiendo que este compuesto retiene parte de los exudados radicales. Se incluyeron experimentos con una y tres plantas por placa y con tratamientos de dosis de fósforo. En los ensayos con una planta por placa, se observó que cuando crecían con CA presentaban menos raíces laterales (38 por ciento en Ler y 27 por ciento en Col) y más largas (83 por ciento en Ler y 96 por ciento en Col). Los responsables de esta respuesta habrían sido los metabolitos secundarios, que disminuyeron su concentración en un 90 por ciento cuando se agregó CA. En los ensayos con tres plantas y utilizando a la planta central como objetivo, se observó que las raíces de ambos ecotipos evitaban la competencia con las plantas de diferente ecotipo invadiendo la zona de crecimiento de la planta del mismo ecotipo cuando crecían con alta disponibilidad de fósforo (P) y sin presencia de CA. Cuando las plantas crecieron con CA o sin (P), no se observó ninguna modificación en la disposición de las raíces en el espacio. Estos resultados indicarían que los metabolitos secundarios están implicados en la identificación de la identidad de las raíces vecinas y en la regulación de la disposición de las raíces laterales en el espacio, en respuesta a la presencia de otras raíces laterales.

Distribución del agua en el suelo y su relación con la estructura radical y producción de biomasa de tres tipos funcionales, en un pastizal de la estepa magallánica seca, Santa Cruz

Uno de los principales aspectos del funcionamiento de los ecosistemas áridos es la dinámica del agua, que determina aspectos estructurales y funcionales, como la dominancia de tipos funcionales (Tf), fenología y productividad. Los objetivos de esta tesis fueron identificar para un pastizal xérico del sur patagónico, las principales variables ambientales que controlan la dinámica del agua en el suelo, los factores que determinan sus variaciones en el perfil (asociados a topografía y parches de vegetación)y evaluar la respuesta de los tres Tf presentes de la vegetación: gramíneas cortas (GC), gramíneas medianas (coirones)y subarbustos frente a esta variaciones temporales y espaciales. En exposiciones norte, sur y plano se midió: potencial hídrico de suelo (10, 25 y 60 cm de profundidad), potencial hídrico foliar y producción de biomasa aérea mensual de los tres Tf. Se determinó la distribución de raíces en cada Tf. y el contenido hídrico del suelo asociado a parches vegetados y de suelo desnudo. Las lluvias se distribuyeron a lo largo del año con dominancia de eventos menor a 5mm (90 por ciento)y ausencia de tormentas. Los tres Tf presentaron más del 60 por de la biomasa de raíces entre 0-10cm del suelo, siguiendo un perfil similar al del frente de mojado de las lluvias más frecuentes, mientras que capas más profundas fueron escasamente exploradas. Los parches de suelo desnudo constituyen una reserva de agua superficial durante el verano, que podría ser utilizada sólo por el subarbusto a través de raíces que se extienden lateralmente. El suelo estuvo húmedo en invierno-primavera, seco en verano y el otoño fue variable de acuerdo al año. La exposición generó un gradiente de humedad en el suelo; la exposición norte fue el extremo más xérico. Este gradiente afectó los potenciales hídricos foliares de los 3 Tf, pero sólo en GC modificó la producción de biomasa. La producción de GC constituye el principal forraje para los ovinos, y probablemente las variaciones temporales y en el paisaje se reflejen en el consumo animal y en la producción secundaria.

Profitability and the poor: corporate strategies, innovation and sustainability

Based on empirical evidence, the article looks at the implications of private sector participation (PSP) for the delivery of water supply and sanitation to the urban and peri-urban poor in developing countries, with particular reference to Africa and Latin America. More precisely, the article addresses the impact produced by multinational companies’ (MNCs) strategies, in light of the pursuit of profitability, on the extension of connections to the pipeline network. It does so by questioning the assumptions that greater private sector efficiency and innovation, together with contract design, will enable the sustainable extension of service coverage to low income dwellers. The strategies of the major water MNCs are considered both in relation to the global expansion of their operations and the adjustment of local strategies to commercial considerations. The latter might result in identifying proWtable markets, modifying contractual provisions, attempting to reduce costs and increase income, reducing risks and exiting from non-performing contracts. The evidence reviewed allows for re-assessing the relative roles of the public and private sectors in extending and delivering water services to the poor. First, the most far reaching innovative approaches to extending connections are more likely to come from communities, public authorities and political activity than from MNCs. Secondly, whenever MNCs are liable to exit from non-profitable contracts, the public sector has no other option than to deal with external risks aVecting continuity of provision. Finally, market limitations affecting MNCs’ ability to serve marginal populations and access cheap capital do not apply to well-organised, politically led public sector undertakings

Policy packages as potential routes to urban road pricing in the UK

This paper focuses on urban road pricing as a demand management policy that is often regarded as radical and generally unacceptable. Road pricing often gets delayed or abandoned due to low acceptability. This may be due to the fact that complex interactions and drivers of change affect road transport management and require cooperation within implementation networks. The implementation network is a group of people (referred to as partners and actors) who co-ordinate the introduction of policy tools. The drivers of change include any internal or external influences that have an effect on the time, place, or ‘shape’ of the policy measures being introduced. Demand management measures that focus on 'sustainable transport' usually address a limited set of objectives and are often implemented alone i.e. are not necessarily combined with other policy measures. When combined with other measures, it is not always clear whether the multiple interactions between policy tools and implementation networks have been sufficiently considered. Examples of ongoing implementation of policy package in the UK are the support of road pricing initiatives combined with public transport improvements by the Transport Innovation Fund. The objectives of the paper are twofold. First, we present a review of the UK urban road pricing situation. Second, we contrast the emerging issues against six key implementation factors. The analysis of three existing UK road pricing examples - London, Edinburgh and Durham – shows the importance of combining policy tools. Furthermore, through the above examples and theoretical arguments, we emphasise the additional need of creating and maintaining strong networks when implementing policy packages.

Accelerating innovation in the built environment by research and education

Awareness of climate change and adaptations of building stock play a key role in the UK government’s environmental agenda. While some European countries and countries like Japan move forward by bringing their sustainability agenda to the public sector, the UK seems to be slow in embracing these ideas and long term sustainability in improved products and processes for better performance, efficiency and innovative application of renewable technology is yet to come. While funding remains a major constraint research show that a number of detrimental issues including; organisation, risk, mind sets of the stakeholders, planning constraints, reluctance to accept change and the unexploited markets are major contributing factors. Most of these barriers can be overcome with research, development and information and knowledge transfer techniques. Educating all stakeholders can act as an accelerator for innovation. This paper examines innovation in the built environment and how research and education can stimulate this process. It explores drivers and barriers for innovation and how research and education in construction, design, engineering and project management can enhance this process. It presents and discusses lessons learnt from two action research projects in relation to innovation.

Accelerating innovation in the social housing sector in UK

The UK government has been promoting innovation in the construction sector to improve the sustainability of the built environment. It has the potential and strength in developing construction research in design and engineering, but the impact of these processes seems to be slow in reaching the residential sector. While funding remains a major constraint research show that a number of detrimental issues including; organisation, risk, mind sets of the stakeholders, planning constraints,reluctance to accept change and the unexploited markets are major contributing factors. Most of these barriers can be overcome with research, development and information and knowledge transfer techniques. Educating all stakeholders can act as an accelerator for innovation. Given the large stock of existing dwellings, the situation is compounded, by issues related to climate change, to the point that this problem can no longer be ignored and requires an urgent response from all sectors involved. This paper attempts to highlight some of the key issues that are important in accelerating innovation in the housing sector. It briefly looks at the process of innovation in housing and presents lessons learnt from two research projects. The drivers and barriers and the role played by the government are examined in relation to the housing context.

Performance measurement and benchmarking of a major innovation programme

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to describe the problems encountered and the solutions developed when using benchmarking and key performance indicators (KPIs) to monitor a major UK social house building innovation (change) programme. The innovation programme sought improvements to both the quality of the house product and the procurement process. Design/methodology/approach: Benchmarking and KPIs were used to quantify performance and in-depth case studies to identify underlying cause and effect relationships within the innovation programme. Findings: The inherent competition between consortium members; the complexity of the relationship between the consortium and its strategic partner; the lack of an authoritative management control structure; and the rapidly changing nature of the UK social housing market all proved problematic to the development of a reliable and robust monitoring system. These problems were overcome by the development of multi-dimensional benchmarking model that balanced the needs and aspirations of the individual organisations with the broader objectives of the consortium. Research limitations/implications: Whilst the research methodology provides insight into the factors that affected the performance of a major innovation programme its findings may not be representative of all projects. Practical implications: The lessons learnt should assist those developing benchmarking models for multi-client consortia. Originality/value: The work reported in this paper describes an inclusive approach to benchmarking in which a multiple client group and their strategic partner sought to work together for shared gain. Very few papers have addressed this issue.

Realizing an Applied Gaming Ecosystem: Towards Supporting Service-based Innovation Knowledge Management and Transfer

The EU-based industry for non-leisure games is an emerging business. As such it is still fragmented and needs to achieve critical mass to compete globally. Nevertheless its growth potential is widely recognized. To become competitive the relevant applied gaming communities and SMEs require support by fostering the generation of innovation potential. The European project Realizing an Applied Gaming Ecosystem (RAGE) is aiming at supporting this challenge. RAGE will help by making available an interoperable set of advanced technology assets, tuned to applied gaming, as well as proven practices of using asset-based applied games in various real-world contexts, and finally a centralized access to a wide range of applied gaming software modules, services and related document, media, and educational resources within an online community portal called the RAGE Ecosystem. It is based on an integrational, user-centered approach of Knowledge Management and Innovation Processes in the shape of a service-based implementation.