Time-lapse Monitoring of the Slopes of a Heritage Earthwork by Means of Near-surface Seismic Techniques

A significant portion of UK’s infrastructures earthworks was built more than 100 years ago, without modern construction standards: poor maintenance and the change of precipitations pattern experienced in the past decades are currently compromising their stability, leading to an increasing number of failures. To address the need for a reliable and time-efficient monitoring of earthworks at risk of failure we propose here the use of two established seismic techniques for the characterization of the near surface, MASW and P-wave refraction. We have regularly collected MASW and P-wave refraction data, from March 2014 to February 2015, along 4 reduced-scale seismic lines located on the flanks of a heritage railway embankment located in Broadway, SW of England. We have observed a definite temporal variability in terms of phase velocities of SW dispersion curves and of P-wave travel times. The accurate choice of ad-hoc inversion strategies has allowed to reconstruct reliable VP and VS models through which it is potentially possible to track the temporal variations of geo-mechanical properties of the embankment slopes. The variability over time of seismic data and seismic velocities seems to correlate well with rainfall data recorded in the days immediately preceding the date of acquisition.

An overview of seismic hybrid testing of engineering structures

An overview of research on the development of the hybrid test method is presented. The maturity of the hybrid test method is mapped in order to provide context to individual research in the overall development of the test method. In the pseudo dynamic (PsD) test method, the equations of motion are solved using a time stepping numerical integration technique with the inertia and damping being numerically modelled whilst restoring force is physically measured over an extended timescale. Developments in continuous PsD testing led to the real-time hybrid test method and geographically distributed hybrid tests. A key aspect to the efficiency of hybrid testing is the substructuring technique where the critical structural subassemblies that are fundamental to the overall response of the structure are physically tested whilst the remainder of the structure whose response can be more easily predicted is numerically modelled. Much of the early research focused on developing the accuracy and efficiency of the test method, whereas more recently the method has matured to a level where the test method is applied purely as a dynamic testing technique. Developments in numerical integration methods, substructuring, experimental error reduction, delay compensation and speed of testing have led to a test method now in use as full-scale real-time dynamic testing method that is reliable, accurate, efficient and cost effective.

Perceptual learning of acoustic noise generates memory-evoked potentials

Experience continuously imprints on the brain at all stages of life. The traces it leaves behind can produce perceptual learning [1], which drives adaptive behavior to previously encountered stimuli. Recently, it has been shown that even random noise, a type of sound devoid of acoustic structure, can trigger fast and robust perceptual learning after repeated exposure [2]. Here, by combining psychophysics, electroencephalography (EEG), and modeling, we show that the perceptual learning of noise is associated with evoked potentials, without any salient physical discontinuity or obvious acoustic landmark in the sound. Rather, the potentials appeared whenever a memory trace was observed behaviorally. Such memory-evoked potentials were characterized by early latencies and auditory topographies, consistent with a sensory origin. Furthermore, they were generated even on conditions of diverted attention. The EEG waveforms could be modeled as standard evoked responses to auditory events (N1-P2) [3], triggered by idiosyncratic perceptual features acquired through learning. Thus, we argue that the learning of noise is accompanied by the rapid formation of sharp neural selectivity to arbitrary and complex acoustic patterns, within sensory regions. Such a mechanism bridges the gap between the short-term and longer-term plasticity observed in the learning of noise [2, 4-6]. It could also be key to the processing of natural sounds within auditory cortices [7], suggesting that the neural code for sound source identification will be shaped by experience as well as by acoustics.

Development of Seismic Fragility Functions for a Moment Resisting Reinforced Concrete Framed Structure

Understanding the seismic vulnerability of building structures is important for seismic engineers, building owners, risk insurers and governments. Seismic vulnerability defines a buildings predisposition to be damaged as a result of an earthquake of a given severity. There are two components to seismic risk; the seismic hazard and the exposure of the structural inventory to any given earthquake event. This paper demonstrates the development of fragility curves at different damage states using a detailed mechanical model of a moment resisting reinforced concrete structure typical of Southern Europe. The mechanical model consists of a complex three-dimensional finite element model of the reinforced concrete moment resisting frame structure and is used to define the damage states through pushover analysis. Fragility curves are also defined using the HAZUS macroseismic methodology and the Risk-UE macroseismic methodology. Comparison of the mechanically modelled and HAZUS fragility curve shows good agreement while the Risk-UE methodology shows reasonably poor agreement.

Áquila Earthquake (2009): influence of seismic source model and structure to modeling the strong ground motions

O sismo, ocorrido em 6 de Abril de 2009 (Mw 6,3) junto à cidade de Áquila (Itália), provocou uma grande destruição. Uma das consequências deste evento foi o impacto na opinião pública em torno da capacidade científica para a estimação da perigosidade sísmica e a necessidade de criação de sistemas de alerta sísmico. A determinação dos mecanismos de fonte sísmica de eventos sísmicos ocorridos e registados permite melhores caracterizações dos movimentos sísmicos para uma determinada área de estudo e consequentemente melhores cenários de risco. Se a região em estudo possuir propriedades físicas específicas e muito distintas de local para local, capazes de provocar alterações locais dos movimentos sísmicos (efeitos de sítio), torna-se imperativo uma caracterização bem definida do meio de propagação das ondas sísmicas de forma a poder sintetizar informação capaz de contribuir para a boa estimação da perigosidade sísmica. No âmbito deste trabalho pretende-se estudar a influência do mecanismo de fonte sísmica e da estrutura na modelação de movimentos sísmicos no caso de Áquila. A metodologia adoptada consiste na determinação da distribuição de deslizamentos sobre o plano de falha e utilização desta informação na modelação de sismogramas sintéticos (com recurso ao algoritmo E3D). Será igualmente estabelecida uma comparação de resultados considerando-se um meio com e sem bacia e considerando-se uma fonte pontual e uma fonte extensa.

Biaxial seismic behaviour of reinforced concrete columns

A análise dos efeitos dos sismos mostra que a investigação em engenharia sísmica deve dar especial atenção à avaliação da vulnerabilidade das construções existentes, frequentemente desprovidas de adequada resistência sísmica tal como acontece em edifícios de betão armado (BA) de muitas cidades em países do sul da Europa, entre os quais Portugal. Sendo os pilares elementos estruturais fundamentais na resistência sísmica dos edifícios, deve ser dada especial atenção à sua resposta sob ações cíclicas. Acresce que o sismo é um tipo de ação cujos efeitos nos edifícios exige a consideração de duas componentes horizontais, o que tem exigências mais severas nos pilares comparativamente à ação unidirecional. Assim, esta tese centra-se na avaliação da resposta estrutural de pilares de betão armado sujeitos a ações cíclicas horizontais biaxiais, em três linhas principais. Em primeiro lugar desenvolveu-se uma campanha de ensaios para o estudo do comportamento cíclico uniaxial e biaxial de pilares de betão armado com esforço axial constante. Para tal foram construídas quatro séries de pilares retangulares de betão armado (24 no total) com diferentes características geométricas e quantidades de armadura longitudinal, tendo os pilares sido ensaiados para diferentes histórias de carga. Os resultados experimentais obtidos são analisados e discutidos dando particular atenção à evolução do dano, à degradação de rigidez e resistência com o aumento das exigências de deformação, à energia dissipada, ao amortecimento viscoso equivalente; por fim é proposto um índice de dano para pilares solicitados biaxialmente. De seguida foram aplicadas diferentes estratégias de modelação não-linear para a representação do comportamento biaxial dos pilares ensaiados, considerando não-linearidade distribuída ao longo dos elementos ou concentrada nas extremidades dos mesmos. Os resultados obtidos com as várias estratégias de modelação demonstraram representar adequadamente a resposta em termos das curvas envolventes força-deslocamento, mas foram encontradas algumas dificuldades na representação da degradação de resistência e na evolução da energia dissipada. Por fim, é proposto um modelo global para a representação do comportamento não-linear em flexão de elementos de betão armado sujeitos a ações biaxiais cíclicas. Este modelo tem por base um modelo uniaxial conhecido, combinado com uma função de interação desenvolvida com base no modelo de Bouc- Wen. Esta função de interação foi calibrada com recurso a técnicas de otimização e usando resultados de uma série de análises numéricas com um modelo refinado. É ainda demonstrada a capacidade do modelo simplificado em reproduzir os resultados experimentais de ensaios biaxiais de pilares.

Seismic vulnerability and risk assessment of historic masonry buildings

Seismic risk evaluation of built-up areas involves analysis of the level of earthquake hazard of the region, building vulnerability and exposure. Within this approach that defines seismic risk, building vulnerability assessment assumes great importance, not only because of the obvious physical consequences in the eventual occurrence of a seismic event, but also because it is the one of the few potential aspects in which engineering research can intervene. In fact, rigorous vulnerability assessment of existing buildings and the implementation of appropriate retrofitting solutions can help to reduce the levels of physical damage, loss of life and the economic impact of future seismic events. Vulnerability studies of urban centresshould be developed with the aim of identifying building fragilities and reducing seismic risk. As part of the rehabilitation of the historic city centre of Coimbra, a complete identification and inspection survey of old masonry buildings has been carried out. The main purpose of this research is to discuss vulnerability assessment methodologies, particularly those of the first level, through the proposal and development of a method previously used to determine the level of vulnerability, in the assessment of physical damage and its relationship with seismic intensity.

Development of open models and tools for seismic risk assessment: application to Portugal

The exponential growth of the world population has led to an increase of settlements often located in areas prone to natural disasters, including earthquakes. Consequently, despite the important advances in the field of natural catastrophes modelling and risk mitigation actions, the overall human losses have continued to increase and unprecedented economic losses have been registered. In the research work presented herein, various areas of earthquake engineering and seismology are thoroughly investigated, and a case study application for mainland Portugal is performed. Seismic risk assessment is a critical link in the reduction of casualties and damages due to earthquakes. Recognition of this relation has led to a rapid rise in demand for accurate, reliable and flexible numerical tools and software. In the present work, an open-source platform for seismic hazard and risk assessment is developed. This software is capable of computing the distribution of losses or damage for an earthquake scenario (deterministic event-based) or earthquake losses due to all the possible seismic events that might occur within a region for a given interval of time (probabilistic event-based). This effort has been developed following an open and transparent philosophy and therefore, it is available to any individual or institution. The estimation of the seismic risk depends mainly on three components: seismic hazard, exposure and vulnerability. The latter component assumes special importance, as by intervening with appropriate retrofitting solutions, it may be possible to decrease directly the seismic risk. The employment of analytical methodologies is fundamental in the assessment of structural vulnerability, particularly in regions where post-earthquake building damage might not be available. Several common methodologies are investigated, and conclusions are yielded regarding the method that can provide an optimal balance between accuracy and computational effort. In addition, a simplified approach based on the displacement-based earthquake loss assessment (DBELA) is proposed, which allows for the rapid estimation of fragility curves, considering a wide spectrum of uncertainties. A novel vulnerability model for the reinforced concrete building stock in Portugal is proposed in this work, using statistical information collected from hundreds of real buildings. An analytical approach based on nonlinear time history analysis is adopted and the impact of a set of key parameters investigated, including the damage state criteria and the chosen intensity measure type. A comprehensive review of previous studies that contributed to the understanding of the seismic hazard and risk for Portugal is presented. An existing seismic source model was employed with recently proposed attenuation models to calculate probabilistic seismic hazard throughout the territory. The latter results are combined with information from the 2011 Building Census and the aforementioned vulnerability model to estimate economic loss maps for a return period of 475 years. These losses are disaggregated across the different building typologies and conclusions are yielded regarding the type of construction more vulnerable to seismic activity.

Seismic vulnerability assessment of slender masonry structures

Slender masonry structures are distributed all over the world and constitute a relevant part of the architectural and cultural heritage of humanity. Their protection against earthquakes is a topic of great concern among the scientific community. This concern mainly arises from the strong damage or complete loss suffered by this group of structures due to catastrophic events and the need and interest to preserve them. Although the great progress in technology, and in the knowledge of seismology and earthquake engineering, the preservation of these brittle and massive structures still represents a major challenge. Based on the research developed in this work it is proposed a methodology for the seismic risk assessment of slender masonry structures. The proposed methodology was applied for the vulnerability assessment of Nepalese Pagoda temples which follow very simple construction procedure and construction detailing in relation to seismic resistance requirements. The work is divided in three main parts. Firstly, particular structural fragilities and building characteristics of the important UNESCO classified Nepalese Pagoda temples which affect their seismic performance and dynamic properties are discussed. In the second part the simplified method proposed for seismic vulnerability assessment of slender masonry structures is presented. Finally, the methodology proposed in this work is applied to study Nepalese Pagoda temples, as well as in the efficiency assessment of seismic performance improvement solution compatible with original cultural and technological value.

FRP Seismic Strengthening of Concrete Structures

This paper presents the experimental work carried out on a full scale concrete frame strengthened with Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites. The frame was damaged, strengthened with FRP reinforcement and re-tested to assess the effectiveness of the strengthening technique. The natural frequencies of vibration, displacements, velocities and accelerations for both the unstrengthened and strengthened frame were recorded and compared.

Seismic retrofitting of RC buildings using CFRP and post-tensioned metal straps: shake table tests

This article examines the effectiveness of two innovative retrofitting solutions at enhancing the seismic behaviour of a substandard reinforced concrete building tested on a shake table as part of the Pan-European funded project BANDIT. To simulate typical substandard construction, the reinforcement of columns and beam-column joints of the full-scale structure had inadequate detailing. An initial series of shake table tests were carried out to assess the seismic behaviour of the bare building and the effectiveness of a first retrofitting intervention using Post-Tensioned Metal Straps. After these tests, columns and joints were repaired and subsequently retrofitted using a retrofitting solution consisting of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers and Post-Tensioned Metal Straps applied on opposite frames of the building. The building was then subjected to unidirectional and three-dimensional incremental seismic excitations to assess the effectiveness of the two retrofitting solutions at improving the global and local building performance. The article provides details of the above shake table testing programme and retrofitting solutions, and discusses the test results in terms of the observed damage, global damage indexes, performance levels and local strains. It is shown that whilst the original bare building was significantly damaged at a peak ground acceleration (PGA) of 0.15g, the retrofitted building resisted severe threedimensional shake table tests up to PGA=0.60g without failure. Moreover, the retrofitting intervention enhanced the interstorey drift ratio capacity of the 1st and 2nd floors by 160% and 110%, respectively. Therefore, the proposed dual retrofitting system is proven to be very effective for improving the seismic performance of substandard buildings.

Modelling underwater acoustic noise as a tool for coastal management

Dissertação de Mestrado, Gestão da Água e da Costa, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade do Algarve, 2009

A neural network seismic detector

This experimental study focuses on a detection system at the seismic station level that should have a similar role to the detection algorithms based on the ratio STA/LTA. We tested two types of neural network: Multi-Layer Perceptrons and Support Vector Machines, trained in supervised mode. The universe of data consisted of 2903 patterns extracted from records of the PVAQ station, of the seismography network of the Institute of Meteorology of Portugal. The spectral characteristics of the records and its variation in time were reflected in the input patterns, consisting in a set of values of power spectral density in selected frequencies, extracted from a spectro gram calculated over a segment of record of pre-determined duration. The universe of data was divided, with about 60% for the training and the remainder reserved for testing and validation. To ensure that all patterns in the universe of data were within the range of variation of the training set, we used an algorithm to separate the universe of data by hyper-convex polyhedrons, determining in this manner a set of patterns that have a mandatory part of the training set. Additionally, an active learning strategy was conducted, by iteratively incorporating poorly classified cases in the training set. The best results, in terms of sensitivity and selectivity in the whole data ranged between 98% and 100%. These results compare very favorably with the ones obtained by the existing detection system, 50%.

On-line operation of an intelligent seismic detector

This study describes the on-line operation of a seismic detection system to act at the level of a seismic station providing similar role to that of a STA /LTA ratio-based detection algorithms. The intelligent detector is a Support Vector Machine (SVM), trained with data consisting of 2903 patterns extracted from records of the PVAQ station, one of the seismographic network's stations of the Institute of Meteorology of Portugal (IM). Records' spectral variations in time and characteristics were reflected in the SVM input patterns, as a set of values of power spectral density at selected frequencies. To ensure that all patterns of the sample data were within the range of variation of the training set, we used an algorithm to separate the universe of data by hyper-convex polyhedrons, determining in this manner a set of patterns that have a mandatory part of the training set. Additionally, an active learning strategy was conducted, by iteratively incorporating poorly classified cases in the training set. After having been trained, the proposed system was experimented in continuous operation for unseen (out of sample) data, and the SVM detector obtained 97.7% and 98.7% of sensitivity and selectivity, respectively. The same type of ANN presented 88.4 % and 99.4% of sensitivity and selectivity when applied to data of a different seismic station of IM. © 2013 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

Measuring underwater noise with high endurance surface and underwater autonomous vehicles

This paper describes the results of AcousticRobot'13 - a noise measurement campaign that took place off the Portuguese Coast in May 2013, using two high endurance autonomous vehicles capable of silent operation (an underwater glider and an autonmomous sailing vessel) equipped with hydrophones, and a moored hydrophone that served as reference. We show that the autonomous vehicles used can provide useful measurements of underwater noise, and describe the main advantages and shortcomings that became evident during the campaign.