Endoplasmic reticulum stress promotes inflammation through activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome

SummaryMulticellular organisms have evolved an immune system in order to cope with the constant threats they are facing. Foreign pathogens or endogenous danger signals released by injured or dying host cells can be readily detected through a set of germline- encoded pattern-recognition receptors. The NOD-like receptors are a cytoplasmic family of pattern-recognition receptors that have recently attracted considerable attention due to their ability to form inflammasomes, which are molecular complexes responsible for the activation of caspase-1 and the subsequent processing of the pro¬inflammatory cytokines IL-IB and 11-18 into their mature, bioactive form.In this study, we describe a novel pro-inflammatory signaling pathway, whereby the endoplasmic reticulum promotes inflammation through activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. This was shown to be independent of the classical endoplasmic reticulum stress response pathway constituted by the effectors IREla, PERK and ATF6a. In keeping with other known NLRP3 activators, generation of reactive oxygen species and potassium efflux were required. We also provide evidence that calcium signaling is critical to this pathway, and possibly integrates signaling triggered by various NLRP3 inflammasome activators. Moreover, the mitochondrial channel VDAC1 was instrumental in mediating this response. We thus propose that the endoplasmic reticulum acts as an integrator of stress and is able to activate the mitochondria in a calcium-dependent manner in order to promote NLRP3 inflammasome activation in response to a wide range of activators.Given the role played by inflammation in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, we decided to investigate a possible role for the NLRP3 inflammasome in the progression of the disease. Using an ApoE mouse model, we find that deficiency in the NLRP3 inflammasome components NLRP3, ASC or Caspase-1 does not impair atherosclerosis progression, nor does it impact plaque stability. While previous studies have clearly shown a role for the interleukin-1 family of ligands in atherosclerosis, our results suggest that its contribution might be more complex than previously appreciated, and further research is thus warranted in this field.RésuméLes organismes multicellulaires ont développé un système immunitaire pour faire face aux menaces qui les entourent. Des pathogènes étrangers ou des signaux de danger relâchés par des cellules de l'hôte en détresse peuvent être rapidement détectés via un assemblage de récepteurs spécifiques qui sont présents dès la naissance. Certains membres de la famille de récepteurs NOD ont récemment attiré beaucoup d'attention au vu de leur capacité à former des inflammasomes, complexes moléculaires responsables de l'activation de la easpase-1 et de la maturation des cytokines pro-inflammatoires IL- 1β et IL-18 en leur forme bioactive.Dans cette étude, nous décrivons une nouvelle voie de signalisation pro-inflammatoire, par laquelle le réticulum endoplasmique induit l'inflammation via l'activation de l'inflammasome NLRP3. Cette voie est indépendante de la voie classique de réponse au stress du réticulum endoplasmique, qui comprend les effecteurs IRE1, PERK et ATF6. Comme pour d'autres activateurs de NLRP3, la génération de radicaux libres d'oxygène ainsi que Γ efflux de potassium sont requis. Nous montrons également que le calcium joue un rôle critique dans cette voie, et intègre possiblement la signalisation provoquée par divers activateurs de l'inflammasome NLRP3. De plus, le canal mitochondrial VDAC1 est essentiel dans cette réponse. Nous proposons donc que le réticulum endoplasmique agit comme un intégrateur de stress, activant la mitochondrie d'une façon calcium-dépendante pour promouvoir l'activation de l'inflammasome NLRP3 en réponse à divers activateurs.Au vu du rôle joué par l'inflammation dans la pathogenèse de l'athérosclérose, nous avons étudié un possible rôle pour l'inflammasome NLRP3 dans la progression de la maladie. Dans un modèle de souris ApoE, l'absence des composants de l'inflammasome NLRP3 que sont NLRP3, ASC et Caspase-1 n'influence pas la progression des plaques ni leur stabilité. Alors que d'autres études ont démontré un rôle pour les membres de la famille de l'interleukine-1 dans l'athérosclérose, nos résultats suggèrent que leur contribution pourrait être plus complexe que précédemment apprécié, et d'autres recherches dans ce domaine sont donc nécessaires.

Chemodiversity and molecular plasticity: recognition processes as explored by property spaces.

In the last few years, a need to account for molecular flexibility in drug-design methodologies has emerged, even if the dynamic behavior of molecular properties is seldom made explicit. For a flexible molecule, it is indeed possible to compute different values for a given conformation-dependent property and the ensemble of such values defines a property space that can be used to describe its molecular variability; a most representative case is the lipophilicity space. In this review, a number of applications of lipophilicity space and other property spaces are presented, showing that this concept can be fruitfully exploited: to investigate the constraints exerted by media of different levels of structural organization, to examine processes of molecular recognition and binding at an atomic level, to derive informative descriptors to be included in quantitative structure--activity relationships and to analyze protein simulations extracting the relevant information. Much molecular information is neglected in the descriptors used by medicinal chemists, while the concept of property space can fill this gap by accounting for the often-disregarded dynamic behavior of both small ligands and biomacromolecules. Property space also introduces some innovative concepts such as molecular sensitivity and plasticity, which appear best suited to explore the ability of a molecule to adapt itself to the environment variously modulating its property and conformational profiles. Globally, such concepts can enhance our understanding of biological phenomena providing fruitful descriptors in drug-design and pharmaceutical sciences.

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors at the cross-road of diet and hormonal signalling.

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are members of the steroid/thyroid nuclear receptor superfamily of ligand-activated transcription factors. To date, three isotypes have been identified, alpha, beta and gamma, encoded by three different genes. The alpha isotype is expressed at high levels in the liver where it has a role in lipid oxidation. Its expression and activity follow a diurnal rhythm that parallels the circulating levels of corticosterone in the bloodstream. The gamma isotype on the other hand, is mainly expressed in adipose tissue and has a critical role in adipocyte differentiation and lipid storage. The function of the ubiquitously expressed isotype, PPAR beta, remains to be determined. Besides fulfilling different roles in lipid metabolism, the different PPAR isotypes also have different ligand specificities. A new approach to identify ligands was developed based on the ligand-dependent interaction of PPAR with the recently characterized co-activator SRC-1. This so-called CARLA assay has allowed the identification of fatty acids and eicosanoids as PPAR ligands. Although the evidence clearly links PPAR isotypes to distinct functions, the molecular basis for this isotype-specificity is still unclear. All three isotypes are able to bind the same consensus response element, formed by a direct repeat of two AGGTCA hexamers separated by one base, though with different affinities. We recently demonstrated that besides the core DR-1 element, the 5' flanking sequence should be included in the definition of a PPRE. Interestingly, the presence of this flanking sequence is of particular importance in the context of PPAR alpha binding. Moreover, it reflects the polarity of the PPAR-RXR heterodimer on DNA, with PPAR binding to the 5' half-site and RXR binding to the 3' half-site. This unusual polarity may confer unique properties to the bound heterodimer with respect to ligand binding and interaction with co-activators and corepressors.

Development and selection of Valpha l4i NKT cells.

Valpha14 invariant natural killer T (Valpha14i NKT) cells are a unique lineage of mouse T cells that share properties with both NK cells and memory T cells. Valpha14i NKT cells recognize CDld-associated glycolipids via a semi-invariant T cell receptor (TCR) composed of an invariant Valpha14-Jalpha 18 chain paired preferentially with a restricted set of TCRbeta chains. During development in the thymus, rare CD4+ CD8+ (DP) cortical thymocytes that successfully rearrange the semi-invariant TCR are directed to the Valpha14i NKT cell lineage via interactions with CD d-associated endogenous glycolipids expressed by other DP thymocytes. As they mature, Valphal4i NKT lineage cells upregulate activation markers such as CD44 and subsequently express NK-related molecules such as NKI.1 and members of the Ly-49 inhibitory receptor family. The developmental program of Valpha l4i NKT cells is critically regulated by a number of signaling cues that have little or no effect on conventional T cell development, such as the Fyn/SAP/SLAM pathway, NFkappaB and T-bet transcription factors, and the cytokine IL-15. The unique developmental requirements of Valphal4i NKT cells may represent a paradigm for other unconventional T cell subsets that are positively selected by agonist ligands expressed on hematopoietic cells.

The role of the NKG2D receptor for tumor immunity.

Natural killer (NK) cells have originally been identified based on their capacity to kill transformed cells in a seemingly non-specific fashion. Over the last 15 years, knowledge on receptor ligand systems used by NK cells to specifically detect transformed cells has been accumulating rapidly. One of these receptor ligand systems, the NKG2D pathway, has received particular attention, and now serves as a paradigm for how the immune system is able to gather information about the health status of autologous host cells. In addition to its significance on NK cells, NKG2D, as well as other NK cell receptors, play significant roles on T cells. This review aims at summarizing recent insights into the regulation of NKG2D function, the control over NKG2D ligand expression and the role of NKG2D in tumor immunity. Finally, we will discuss first attempts to exploit NKG2D function to improve immunity to tumors.

The integrin antagonist cilengitide activates alphaVbeta3, disrupts VE-cadherin localization at cell junctions and enhances permeability in endothelial cells.

Cilengitide is a high-affinity cyclic pentapeptdic alphaV integrin antagonist previously reported to suppress angiogenesis by inducing anoikis of endothelial cells adhering through alphaVbeta3/alphaVbeta5 integrins. Angiogenic endothelial cells express multiple integrins, in particular those of the beta1 family, and little is known on the effect of cilengitide on endothelial cells expressing alphaVbeta3 but adhering through beta1 integrins. Through morphological, biochemical, pharmacological and functional approaches we investigated the effect of cilengitide on alphaVbeta3-expressing human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) cultured on the beta1 ligands fibronectin and collagen I. We show that cilengitide activated cell surface alphaVbeta3, stimulated phosphorylation of FAK (Y(397) and Y(576/577)), Src (S(418)) and VE-cadherin (Y(658) and Y(731)), redistributed alphaVbeta3 at the cell periphery, caused disappearance of VE-cadherin from cellular junctions, increased the permeability of HUVEC monolayers and detached HUVEC adhering on low-density beta1 integrin ligands. Pharmacological inhibition of Src kinase activity fully prevented cilengitide-induced phosphorylation of Src, FAK and VE-cadherin, and redistribution of alphaVbeta3 and VE-cadherin and partially prevented increased permeability, but did not prevent HUVEC detachment from low-density matrices. Taken together, these observations reveal a previously unreported effect of cilengitide on endothelial cells namely its ability to elicit signaling events disrupting VE-cadherin localization at cellular contacts and to increase endothelial monolayer permeability. These effects are potentially relevant to the clinical use of cilengitide as anticancer agent.

Gene transfer of programmed death ligand-1.Ig prolongs cardiac allograft survival.

BACKGROUND: The CD28 homologue programmed death-1 (PD-1) and its ligands, PD-L1 and PD-L2 (which are homologous to B7), constitute an inhibitory pathway of T cell costimulation. The PD-1 pathway is of interest for immune-mediated diseases given that PD-1-deficient mice develop autoimmune diseases. We have evaluated the effect of local overexpression of a PD-L1.Ig fusion protein on cardiac allograft survival. METHODS: Adenovirus-mediated PD-L1.Ig gene transfer was performed in F344 rat donor hearts placed in the abdominal position in Lewis recipients. Inflammatory cell infiltrates in the grafts were assessed by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: Allografts transduced with the PD-L1.Ig gene survived for longer periods of time compared with those receiving noncoding adenovirus or virus dilution buffer alone: median survival time (MST), 17 (range: 16-20) days vs. 11 (8-14) and 9 (8-13) days, respectively (P < 0.001). PD-L1.Ig gene transfer combined with a subtherapeutic regimen of cyclosporin A (CsA) was superior to CsA alone: MST, 25 (15-42) vs. 15 (13-19) days (P < 0.05). PD-L1.Ig gene transfer was associated with decreased numbers of CD4 cells and monocytes/macrophages infiltrating the graft (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Localized PD-L1.Ig expression in donor hearts attenuates acute allograft rejection in a rat model. The effect is additive to that of a subtherapeutic regimen of CsA. These results suggest that targeting of PD-1 by gene therapy may inhibit acute cardiac allograft rejection in vivo.

Interactions between cancer stem cells and their niche govern metastatic colonization.

Metastatic growth in distant organs is the major cause of cancer mortality. The development of metastasis is a multistage process with several rate-limiting steps. Although dissemination of tumour cells seems to be an early and frequent event, the successful initiation of metastatic growth, a process termed 'metastatic colonization', is inefficient for many cancer types and is accomplished only by a minority of cancer cells that reach distant sites. Prevalent target sites are characteristic of many tumour entities, suggesting that inadequate support by distant tissues contributes to the inefficiency of the metastatic process. Here we show that a small population of cancer stem cells is critical for metastatic colonization, that is, the initial expansion of cancer cells at the secondary site, and that stromal niche signals are crucial to this expansion process. We find that periostin (POSTN), a component of the extracellular matrix, is expressed by fibroblasts in the normal tissue and in the stroma of the primary tumour. Infiltrating tumour cells need to induce stromal POSTN expression in the secondary target organ (in this case lung) to initiate colonization. POSTN is required to allow cancer stem cell maintenance, and blocking its function prevents metastasis. POSTN recruits Wnt ligands and thereby increases Wnt signalling in cancer stem cells. We suggest that the education of stromal cells by infiltrating tumour cells is an important step in metastatic colonization and that preventing de novo niche formation may be a novel strategy for the treatment of metastatic disease.

International union of basic and clinical pharmacology. XCI. structure, function, and pharmacology of acid-sensing ion channels and the epithelial Na+ channel.

The epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC) and the acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) form subfamilies within the ENaC/degenerin family of Na(+) channels. ENaC mediates transepithelial Na(+) transport, thereby contributing to Na(+) homeostasis and the maintenance of blood pressure and the airway surface liquid level. ASICs are H(+)-activated channels found in central and peripheral neurons, where their activation induces neuronal depolarization. ASICs are involved in pain sensation, the expression of fear, and neurodegeneration after ischemia, making them potentially interesting drug targets. This review summarizes the biophysical properties, cellular functions, and physiologic and pathologic roles of the ASIC and ENaC subfamilies. The analysis of the homologies between ENaC and ASICs and the relation between functional and structural information shows many parallels between these channels, suggesting that some mechanisms that control channel activity are shared between ASICs and ENaC. The available crystal structures and the discovery of animal toxins acting on ASICs provide a unique opportunity to address the molecular mechanisms of ENaC and ASIC function to identify novel strategies for the modulation of these channels by pharmacologic ligands.

Cognate peptide-receptor ligand mapping by directed phage display

Background: A rapid phage display method for the elucidation of cognate peptide specific ligand for receptors is described. The approach may be readily integrated into the interface of genomic and proteomic studies to identify biologically relevant ligands.Methods: A gene fragment library from influenza coat protein haemagglutinin (HA) gene was constructed by treating HA cDNA with DNAse I to create 50 ¿ 100 bp fragments. These fragments were cloned into plasmid pORFES IV and in-frame inserts were selected. These in-frame fragment inserts were subsequently cloned into a filamentous phage display vector JC-M13-88 for surface display as fusions to a synthetic copy of gene VIII. Two well characterized antibodies, mAb 12CA5 and pAb 07431, directed against distinct known regions of HA were used to pan the library. Results: Two linear epitopes, HA peptide 112 ¿ 126 and 162¿173, recognized by mAb 12CA5 and pAb 07431, respectively, were identified as the cognate epitopes.Conclusion: This approach is a useful alternative to conventional methods such as screening of overlapping synthetic peptide libraries or gene fragment expression libraries when searching for precise peptide protein interactions, and may be applied to functional proteomics.

Identification of ectodysplasin target genes reveals the involvement of chemokines in hair development.

Ectodysplasin (Eda), a member of the tumor necrosis factor (Tnf) family, regulates skin appendage morphogenesis via its receptor Edar and transcription factor NF-κB. In humans, inactivating mutations in the Eda pathway components lead to hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia (HED), a syndrome characterized by sparse hair, tooth abnormalities, and defects in several cutaneous glands. A corresponding phenotype is observed in Eda-null mice, where failure in the initiation of the first wave of hair follicle development is a hallmark of HED pathogenesis. In an attempt to discover immediate target genes of the Eda/NF-κB pathway, we performed microarray profiling of genes differentially expressed in embryonic skin explants after a short exposure to recombinant Fc-Eda protein. Upregulated genes included components of the Wnt, fibroblast growth factor, transforming growth factor-β, Tnf, and epidermal growth factor families, indicating that Eda modulates multiple signaling pathways implicated in skin appendage development. Surprisingly, we identified two ligands of the chemokine receptor cxcR3, cxcl10 and cxcl11, as new hair-specific transcriptional targets of Eda. Deficiency in cxcR3 resulted in decreased primary hair follicle density but otherwise normal hair development, indicating that chemokine signaling influences the patterning of primary hair placodes only.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors: a nuclear receptor signaling pathway in lipid physiology.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are lipid-activated transcription factors that belong to the steroid/thyroid/retinoic acid receptor superfamily. All their characterized target genes encode proteins that participate in lipid homeostasis. The recent finding that antidiabetic thiazolidinediones and adipogenic prostanoids are ligands of one of the PPARs reveals a novel signaling pathway that directly links these compounds to processes involved in glucose homeostasis and lipid metabolism including adipocyte differentiation. A detailed understanding of this pathway could designate PPARs as targets for the development of novel efficient treatments for several metabolic disorders.

Mécanismes moléculaires de l'homodimérisation de la protéine Scaffold IB1 et son implication dans la sécrétion d'insuline

RÉSUMÉ Les kinases activées par des mitogènes (MAPKs) constituent une importante famille d'enzymes conservée dans l'évolution. Elles forment un réseau de signalisation qui permet à la cellule de réguler spécifiquement divers processus impliqués dans la différenciation, la survie ou l'apoptose. Les kinases formant le module MAPK sont typiquement disposées en cascades de trois partenaires qui s'activent séquentiellement par phosphorylation. Le module minimum est constitué d'une MAPK kinase kinase (MAPKKK), d'une MAPK kinase (MAPKK) et d'une MAPK. Une fois activée, la MAPK phosphoryle différents substrats tels que des facteurs de transcription ou d'autres protéines. Chez les mammifères, trois groupes principaux de MAPKs ont été identifiés. Il s'agit du groupe des kinases régulées par des signaux extracellulaires du type «mitogènes » (ERK), ainsi que des groupes p38 et cJun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK), ou SAPK pour stress activated protein kinase, plutôt activées par des stimuli de type «stress ». De nombreuses études ont impliqué JNK dans la régulation de différents processus physiologiques et pathologiques, comme le diabète, les arthrites rhumatoïdes, l'athérosclérose, l'attaque cérébrale, les maladies de Parkinson et d'Alzheimer. JNK, en particulier joue un rôle dans la mort des cellules sécrétrices d'insuline induite par l'interleukine (IL)-1 β, lors du développement du diabète de type 1. IB1 est une protéine scaffold (échafaud) qui participe à l'organisation du module de JNK. IB1 est fortement exprimée dans les neurones et les cellules β du pancréas. Elle a été impliquée dans la survie des cellules, la régulation de l'expression du transporteur du glucose de type 2 (Glut-2) et dans le processus de sécrétion d'insuline glucose-dépendante. IBl est caractérisée par plusieurs domaines d'interaction protéine-protéine : un domaine de liaison à JNK (JBD), un domaine homologue au domaine 3 de Src (SH3) et un domaine d'interaction avec des tyrosines phosphorylées (PID). Des partenaires d'IB1, incluant les membres de la familles des kinases de lignée mélangée (MLKs), la MAPKK MKK7, la phosphatase 7 des MAPKs (MKP-7) ainsi que la chaîne légère de la kinésine, ont été isolés. Tous ces facteurs, sauf les MLKs et MKK7 interagissent avec le domaine PID ou l'extrême partie C-terminale d'IBl (la chaîne légère de la kinésine). Comme d'autres protéines scaffolds déjà décrites, IBl et un autre membre de la famille, IB2, sont capables d'homo- et d'hétérodimériser. L'interaction a lieu par l'intermédiaire de leur région C-terminale, contenant les domaines SH3 et PID. Mais ni le mécanisme moléculaire, ni la fonction de la dimérisation n'ont été caractérisés. Le domaine SH3 joue un rôle central lors de l'assemblage de complexes de macromolécules impliquées dans la signalisation intracellulaire. Il reconnaît de préférence des ligands contenant un motif riche en proline de type PxxP et s'y lie. Jusqu'à maintenant, tous les ligands isolés se liant à un domaine SH3 sont linéaires. Bien que le domaine SH3 soit un domaine important de la transmission des signaux, aucun partenaire interagissant spécifiquement avec le domaine SH3 d'IB1 n'a été identifié. Nous avons démontré qu'IBl homodimérisait par un nouveau set unique d'interaction domaine SH3 - domaine SH3. Les études de cristallisation ont démontré que l'interface recouvrait une région généralement impliquée dans la reconnaissance classique d'un motif riche en proline de type PxxP, bien que le domaine SH3 d'IB1 ne contienne aucun motif PxxP. L'homodimère d'IB1 semble extrêmement stable. Il peut cependant être déstabilisé par trois mutations ponctuelles dirigées contre des résidus clés impliqués dans la dimérisation. Chaque mutation réduit l'activation basale de JNK dépendante d'IB 1 dans des cellules 293T. La déstabilisation de la dimérisation induite par la sur-expression du domaine SH3, provoque une diminution de la sécrétion d'insuline glucose dépendant. SUMMARY Mitogen activated kinases (MAPK) are an important and conserved enzyme family. They form a signaling network required to specifically regulate process involved in cell differentiation, proliferation or death. A MAPK module is typically organized in a threekinase cascade which are activated by sequential phosphorylation. The MAPK kinase kinase (MAPKKK), the MAPK kinase (MAPKK) and the MAPK constitute the minimal module. Once activated, the MAPK phosphorylates its targets like transcription factors or other proteins. In mammals, three major groups of MAPKs have been identified : the group of extra-cellular regulated kinase (ERK) which is activated by mitogens and the group of p38 and cJun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) or SAPK for stress activated protein kinase, which are activated by stresses. Many studies implicated JNK in many physiological or pathological process regulations, like diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, arteriosclerosis, strokes or Parkinson and Alzheimer disease. In particular, JNK plays a crucial role in pancreatic β cell death induced by Interleukin (IL)-1 β in type 1 diabetes. Islet-brain 1 (IB 1) is a scaffold protein that interacts with components of the JNK signal-transduction pathway. IB 1 is expressed at high levels in neurons and in pancreatic β-cells, where it has been implicated in cell survival, in regulating expression of the glucose transporter type 2 (Glut-2) and in glucose-induced insulin secretion. It contains several protein-protein interaction domains, including a JNK-binding domain (JBD), a Src homology 3 domain (SH3) and a phosphotyrosine interaction domain (PID). Proteins that have been shown to associate with IB 1 include members of the Mixed lineage kinase family (MLKs), the MAPKK MKK7, the MAPK phosphatase-7 MKP7, as well as several other ligands including kinesin light chain, LDL receptor related family members and the amyloid precursor protein APP. All these factors, except MLK3 and MKK7 have been shown to interact with the PID domain or the extreme C-terminal part (Kinesin light chain) of IB 1. As some scaffold already described, IB 1 and another member of the family, IB2, have previously been shown to engage in oligomerization through their respective C-terminal regions that include the SH3 and PID domains. But neither the molecular mechanisms nor the function of dimerization have yet been characterized. SH3 domains are central in the assembly of macromolecular complexes involved in many intracellular signaling pathways. SH3 domains are usually characterized by their preferred recognition of and association with canonical PxxP motif. In all these cases, a single linear sequence is sufficient for binding to the SH3 domain. However, although SH3 domains are important elements of signal transduction, no protein that interacts specifically with the SH3 domain of IB 1 has been identified so far. Here, we show that IB 1 homodimerizes through a navel and unique set of SH3-SH3 interactions. X-ray crystallography studies indicate that the dieter interface covers a region usually engaged in PxxP-mediated ligand recognition, even though the IB 1 SH3 domain lacks this motif. The highly stable IB 1 homodimer can be significantly destabilized in vitro by individual point-mutations directed against key residues involved in dimerization. Each mutation reduces IB 1-dependent basal JNK activity in 293T cells. Impaired dimerization induced by over-expression of the SH3 domain also results in a significant reduction in glucose-dependent insulin secretion in pancreatic β-cells.

The role of the δ-opioid receptor in skin homeostasis and wound healing

Au regard des agressions environnementales constantes que la peau doit endurer, l'équilibre fragile entre l'expression et la répression des gènes épidermiques, nécessaire à la différentiation et la prolifération des kératinocytes, pourrait facilement être perturbé en l'absence des mécanismes de stabilisation robustes. La présence d'un système neuroendocrinien local est donc importante afin de coordonner une réponse aux éventuelles irritations. En effet, l'expression de plusieurs neurohormones, des neurotransmetteurs et des neuropeptides, y compris des dérivés pro-opiomélanocortine comme la ß-endorphine et [Met5]-enképhaline, ainsi que l'expression du récepteur 8-opioïde (DOR) a été démontré dans la peau. Cependant, les mécanismes moléculaires par lesquels ils modulent la fonction des kératinocytes sont mal connus. Le présent travail démontre que la voie de signalisation DOR active spécifiquement la voie ERK 1/2 MAPK dans les lignées cellulaires de kératinocytes humains, inhibant la prolifération des cellules et entraîne une diminution de l'épaisseur épidermique dans un modèle organotypique de peau. De plus, l'expression de DOR retarde nettement l'induction de la kératine 10 (KRT 10) et la kératine 1 (KRT 1) dans une modèle 2D de différentiation in vitro, et supprime l'induction de KRT 10 dans un modèle organotypique de peau. Ceci est accompagné de la dérégulation de l'involucrine (IVL), la loricrine (LOR) et la fïlaggrin (FLG), résultant en une induction nettement réduite de leur expression lors de l'initiation de la différentiation in vitro. De plus, POU2F3 a été identifié comme un facteur de transcription régulant les gènes de différentiation des kératinocytes modulés par DOR. Il a été démontré que la régulation négative de POU2F3 via la voie DOR-ERK affecte les principaux aspects de la fonction des kératinocytes. Toutefois, il est évident que des facteurs supplémentaires influencent la fonctionnalité de la voie DOR elle-même. Le calcium et le contact cellule-cellule augmentent la quantité des récepteurs à la surface cellulaire des kératinocytes. Les kératinocytes dont les récepteurs sont internalisés ne répondent pas de la même manière que ceux possédant des récepteurs fonctionnels localisée à la membrane. Ce travail suggère que lors de signaux intrinsèques ou extrinsèques spécifiques, les kératinocytes sont capable de répondre via le système opioïdergique neuro-epidermique. Cette réponse doit être spatialement et temporairement contrôlée afin d'éviter un déséquilibre de l'homéostasie épidermique et un retard de cicatrisation. La compréhension de ce processus très complexe pourrait permettre à terme le développement de meilleurs traitements des affections cutanées pathologiques. En complément des études précédentes sur des souris DOR-défïcientes, ces données suggèrent que l'activation de DOR dans les kératinocytes humains influence la morphogenèse et l'homéostasie de l'épiderme, et pourrait jouer un rôle lors du processus de cicatrisation. - In view of the constant environmental assaults that the skin must endure, the delicate balance of an eloquent sequence of epidermal gene expression and repression, that is required for appropriate differentiation and proliferation of keratinocytes, might easily become derailed in the absence of robust stabilizing mechanisms. The presence of a local neuroendocrine system is thereby important to coordinate a response towards irritations. In fact, the expression of several neurohormones, neurotransmitters, and neuropeptides, including proopiomelanocortin derivatives, such as ß- endorphin and [Met5]-enkephalin has been shown in skin, as well as expression of the 6-opioid receptor (DOR). However, there is currently a lack of understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which their signalling modulates keratinocyte function. The present work demonstrates that DOR signalling specifically activates the ERK 1/2 MAPK pathway in human keratinocyte cell lines. This activation inhibits cell proliferation, resulting in decreased epidermal thickness in an organotypic skin model. Furthermore, DOR expression markedly delays induction of keratin intermediate filament Keratin 10 (KRT 10) and KRT 1 during in vitro differentiation, and abolishes the induction of KRT 10 in the organotypic skin model. This is accompanied by deregulation of involucrin (IVL), loricrin (LOR), and filaggrin (FLG), illustrated by a markedly reduced induction of their expression upon initiation of differentiation in vitro. Additionally, POU2F3 was identified as a transcription factor mediating the DOR induced regulation of keratinocyte differentiation related genes. It was revealed that DOR-mediated ERK-dependent downregulation of this factor affects key aspects of keratinocyte function. However, it is evident that additional triggers influence the functionality of the DOR itself. Calcium at concentrations above 0.1 mM and cell-cell contact both enhance the presence of receptor molecules on the keratinocytes cell surface. Keratinocytes with internalized receptor do not respond to DOR ligands in the same way as keratinocytes with a functional membrane localized receptor.