Is there any premium for unobservable quality? : a hedonic price analysis of the Malagasy rice market

This paper examines if consumers pay a premium for unobservable quality in the absence of quality standards and/or quality grading systems and, if so, how they assess that unobservable quality, using a rice retail market in Madagascar as an example. In Madagascar, the lack of quality standards and/or grading systems for rice makes is considered to be one of the causes of the rice market's spatial disintegration. Thus, quality standards and grading systems will be necessary to increase the market's efficiency. We hypothesize that consumers and retailers use product origin and rice name as observable indictors of unobservable quality and test the hypothesis using hedonic price regressions. We find that the interaction terms of product origin and rice name significantly affect the price after controlling for both observable quality and spatial and temporal price variation, but that the contribution of product origin and rice name to rice price variation is smaller than spatial and temporal factors. We thus conclude that consumers pay a premium for unobservable quality throughout Madagascar. This finding implies that quality standards and/or grading systems will work in the Malagasy market and that improving market infrastructure such as roads and storage will make them even more effective.

Integrated economic-hydrologic analysis of policy responses

Water is a vital resource, but also a critical limiting factor for economic and social development in many parts of the world. The recent rapid growth in human population and water use for social and economic development is increasing the pressure on water resources and the environment, as well as leading to growing conflicts among competing water use sectors (agriculture, urban, tourism, industry) and regions (Gleick et al., 2009; World Bank, 2006). In Spain, as in many other arid and semi-arid regions affected by drought and wide climate variability, irrigated agriculture is responsible for most consumptive water use and plays an important role in sustaining rural livelihoods (Varela-Ortega, 2007). Historically, the evolution of irrigation has been based on publicly-funded irrigation development plans that promoted economic growth and improved the socio-economic conditions of rural farmers in agrarian Spain, but increased environmental damage and led to excessive and inefficient exploitation of water resources (Garrido and Llamas, 2010; Varela-Ortega et al., 2010). Currently, water policies in Spain focus on rehabilitating and improving the efficiency of irrigation systems, and are moving from technocratic towards integrated water management strategies driven by the European Union (EU) Water Framework Directive (WFD).

Latin American Agricultural Trade: The Role of the WTO in Sustainable Virtual Water Flows, European Association of Agricultural Economists

International agricultural trade has been growing significantly during the last decade. Many countries rely on imports to ensure adequate food supplies to the people. A few are becoming food baskets of the world. This process raises issues about the food security in depending countries and potentially unsustainable land and water use in exporting countries. In this paper, we analyse the impacts of amplified farm trade on natural resources, especially water. Farm exports and imports of five Latin America countries (Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Peru and Chile) are examined carefully. A preliminary analysis indicates that virtual water imports can save valuable water resources in water-short countries, such as Mexico and Chile. Major exporting countries, including Brazil and Argentina, have become big exporters due to abundant natural resource endowments. The opportunity costs of agricultural production in those countries are identified as being low, because of the predominant green water use. It is concluded that virtual water trade can be a powerful tool to alleviate water stress in semi-arid countries. However, for exporting nations a sustainable water use can only be guaranteed if environmental production costs are fully reflected in the commodity prices. There is no basis for erecting environmental trade tariffs on exporters though. Setting up legal foundations for them in full compliance with WTOs processes would be a daunting task.

An Intercomparison of Modelling Approaches for Simulating the Atmospheric Dispersion of Ammonia Emitted by Agricultural Sources

RESUMEN La dispersión del amoniaco (NH3) emitido por fuentes agrícolas en medias distancias, y su posterior deposición en el suelo y la vegetación, pueden llevar a la degradación de ecosistemas vulnerables y a la acidificación de los suelos. La deposición de NH3 suele ser mayor junto a la fuente emisora, por lo que los impactos negativos de dichas emisiones son generalmente mayores en esas zonas. Bajo la legislación comunitaria, varios estados miembros emplean modelos de dispersión inversa para estimar los impactos de las emisiones en las proximidades de las zonas naturales de especial conservación. Una revisión reciente de métodos para evaluar impactos de NH3 en distancias medias recomendaba la comparación de diferentes modelos para identificar diferencias importantes entre los métodos empleados por los distintos países de la UE. En base a esta recomendación, esta tesis doctoral compara y evalúa las predicciones de las concentraciones atmosféricas de NH3 de varios modelos bajo condiciones, tanto reales como hipotéticas, que plantean un potencial impacto sobre ecosistemas (incluidos aquellos bajo condiciones de clima Mediterráneo). En este sentido, se procedió además a la comparación y evaluación de varias técnicas de modelización inversa para inferir emisiones de NH3. Finalmente, se ha desarrollado un modelo matemático simple para calcular las concentraciones de NH3 y la velocidad de deposición de NH3 en ecosistemas vulnerables cercanos a una fuente emisora. La comparativa de modelos supuso la evaluación de cuatro modelos de dispersión (ADMS 4.1; AERMOD v07026; OPS-st v3.0.3 y LADD v2010) en un amplio rango de casos hipotéticos (dispersión de NH3 procedente de distintos tipos de fuentes agrícolas de emisión). La menor diferencia entre las concentraciones medias estimadas por los distintos modelos se obtuvo para escenarios simples. La convergencia entre las predicciones de los modelos fue mínima para el escenario relativo a la dispersión de NH3 procedente de un establo ventilado mecánicamente. En este caso, el modelo ADMS predijo concentraciones significativamente menores que los otros modelos. Una explicación de estas diferencias podríamos encontrarla en la interacción de diferentes “penachos” y “capas límite” durante el proceso de parametrización. Los cuatro modelos de dispersión fueron empleados para dos casos reales de dispersión de NH3: una granja de cerdos en Falster (Dinamarca) y otra en Carolina del Norte (EEUU). Las concentraciones medias anuales estimadas por los modelos fueron similares para el caso americano (emisión de granjas ventiladas de forma natural y balsa de purines). La comparación de las predicciones de los modelos con concentraciones medias anuales medidas in situ, así como la aplicación de los criterios establecidos para la aceptación estadística de los modelos, permitió concluir que los cuatro modelos se comportaron aceptablemente para este escenario. No ocurrió lo mismo en el caso danés (nave ventilada mecánicamente), en donde el modelo LADD no dio buenos resultados debido a la ausencia de procesos de “sobreelevacion de penacho” (plume-rise). Los modelos de dispersión dan a menudo pobres resultados en condiciones de baja velocidad de viento debido a que la teoría de dispersión en la que se basan no es aplicable en estas condiciones. En situaciones de frecuente descenso en la velocidad del viento, la actual guía de modelización propone usar un modelo que sea eficaz bajo dichas condiciones, máxime cuando se realice una valoración que tenga como objeto establecer una política de regularización. Esto puede no ser siempre posible debido a datos meteorológicos insuficientes, en cuyo caso la única opción sería utilizar un modelo más común, como la versión avanzada de los modelos Gausianos ADMS o AERMOD. Con el objetivo de evaluar la idoneidad de estos modelos para condiciones de bajas velocidades de viento, ambos modelos fueron utilizados en un caso con condiciones Mediterráneas. Lo que supone sucesivos periodos de baja velocidad del viento. El estudio se centró en la dispersión de NH3 procedente de una granja de cerdos en Segovia (España central). Para ello la concentración de NH3 media mensual fue medida en 21 localizaciones en torno a la granja. Se realizaron también medidas de concentración de alta resolución en una única localización durante una campaña de una semana. En este caso, se evaluaron dos estrategias para mejorar la respuesta del modelo ante bajas velocidades del viento. La primera se basó en “no zero wind” (NZW), que sustituyó periodos de calma con el mínimo límite de velocidad del viento y “accumulated calm emissions” (ACE), que forzaban al modelo a calcular las emisiones totales en un periodo de calma y la siguiente hora de no-calma. Debido a las importantes incertidumbres en los datos de entrada del modelo (inputs) (tasa de emisión de NH3, velocidad de salida de la fuente, parámetros de la capa límite, etc.), se utilizó el mismo caso para evaluar la incertidumbre en la predicción del modelo y valorar como dicha incertidumbre puede ser considerada en evaluaciones del modelo. Un modelo dinámico de emisión, modificado para el caso de clima Mediterráneo, fue empleado para estimar la variabilidad temporal en las emisiones de NH3. Así mismo, se realizó una comparativa utilizando las emisiones dinámicas y la tasa constante de emisión. La incertidumbre predicha asociada a la incertidumbre de los inputs fue de 67-98% del valor medio para el modelo ADMS y entre 53-83% del valor medio para AERMOD. La mayoría de esta incertidumbre se debió a la incertidumbre del ratio de emisión en la fuente (50%), seguida por la de las condiciones meteorológicas (10-20%) y aquella asociada a las velocidades de salida (5-10%). El modelo AERMOD predijo mayores concentraciones que ADMS y existieron más simulaciones que alcanzaron los criterios de aceptabilidad cuando se compararon las predicciones con las concentraciones medias anuales medidas. Sin embargo, las predicciones del modelo ADMS se correlacionaron espacialmente mejor con las mediciones. El uso de valores dinámicos de emisión estimados mejoró el comportamiento de ADMS, haciendo empeorar el de AERMOD. La aplicación de estrategias destinadas a mejorar el comportamiento de este último tuvo efectos contradictorios similares. Con el objeto de comparar distintas técnicas de modelización inversa, varios modelos (ADMS, LADD y WindTrax) fueron empleados para un caso no agrícola, una colonia de pingüinos en la Antártida. Este caso fue empleado para el estudio debido a que suponía la oportunidad de obtener el primer factor de emisión experimental para una colonia de pingüinos antárticos. Además las condiciones eran propicias desde el punto de vista de la casi total ausencia de concentraciones ambiente (background). Tras el trabajo de modelización existió una concordancia suficiente entre las estimaciones obtenidas por los tres modelos. De este modo se pudo definir un factor de emisión de para la colonia de 1.23 g NH3 por pareja criadora por día (con un rango de incertidumbre de 0.8-2.54 g NH3 por pareja criadora por día). Posteriores aplicaciones de técnicas de modelización inversa para casos agrícolas mostraron también un buen compromiso estadístico entre las emisiones estimadas por los distintos modelos. Con todo ello, es posible concluir que la modelización inversa es una técnica robusta para estimar tasas de emisión de NH3. Modelos de selección (screening) permiten obtener una rápida y aproximada estimación de los impactos medioambientales, siendo una herramienta útil para evaluaciones de impactos en tanto que permite eliminar casos que presentan un riesgo potencial de daño bajo. De esta forma, lo recursos del modelo pueden Resumen (Castellano) destinarse a casos en donde la posibilidad de daño es mayor. El modelo de Cálculo Simple de los Límites de Impacto de Amoniaco (SCAIL) se desarrolló para obtener una estimación de la concentración media de NH3 y de la tasa de deposición seca asociadas a una fuente agrícola. Está técnica de selección, basada en el modelo LADD, fue evaluada y calibrada con diferentes bases de datos y, finalmente, validada utilizando medidas independientes de concentraciones realizadas cerca de las fuentes. En general SCAIL dio buenos resultados de acuerdo a los criterios estadísticos establecidos. Este trabajo ha permitido definir situaciones en las que las concentraciones predichas por modelos de dispersión son similares, frente a otras en las que las predicciones difieren notablemente entre modelos. Algunos modelos nos están diseñados para simular determinados escenarios en tanto que no incluyen procesos relevantes o están más allá de los límites de su aplicabilidad. Un ejemplo es el modelo LADD que no es aplicable en fuentes con velocidad de salida significativa debido a que no incluye una parametrización de sobreelevacion del penacho. La evaluación de un esquema simple combinando la sobreelevacion del penacho y una turbulencia aumentada en la fuente mejoró el comportamiento del modelo. Sin embargo más pruebas son necesarias para avanzar en este sentido. Incluso modelos que son aplicables y que incluyen los procesos relevantes no siempre dan similares predicciones. Siendo las razones de esto aún desconocidas. Por ejemplo, AERMOD predice mayores concentraciones que ADMS para dispersión de NH3 procedente de naves de ganado ventiladas mecánicamente. Existe evidencia que sugiere que el modelo ADMS infraestima concentraciones en estas situaciones debido a un elevado límite de velocidad de viento. Por el contrario, existen evidencias de que AERMOD sobreestima concentraciones debido a sobreestimaciones a bajas Resumen (Castellano) velocidades de viento. Sin embrago, una modificación simple del pre-procesador meteorológico parece mejorar notablemente el comportamiento del modelo. Es de gran importancia que estas diferencias entre las predicciones de los modelos sean consideradas en los procesos de evaluación regulada por los organismos competentes. Esto puede ser realizado mediante la aplicación del modelo más útil para cada caso o, mejor aún, mediante modelos múltiples o híbridos. ABSTRACT Short-range atmospheric dispersion of ammonia (NH3) emitted by agricultural sources and its subsequent deposition to soil and vegetation can lead to the degradation of sensitive ecosystems and acidification of the soil. Atmospheric concentrations and dry deposition rates of NH3 are generally highest near the emission source and so environmental impacts to sensitive ecosystems are often largest at these locations. Under European legislation, several member states use short-range atmospheric dispersion models to estimate the impact of ammonia emissions on nearby designated nature conservation sites. A recent review of assessment methods for short-range impacts of NH3 recommended an intercomparison of the different models to identify whether there are notable differences to the assessment approaches used in different European countries. Based on this recommendation, this thesis compares and evaluates the atmospheric concentration predictions of several models used in these impact assessments for various real and hypothetical scenarios, including Mediterranean meteorological conditions. In addition, various inverse dispersion modelling techniques for the estimation of NH3 emissions rates are also compared and evaluated and a simple screening model to calculate the NH3 concentration and dry deposition rate at a sensitive ecosystem located close to an NH3 source was developed. The model intercomparison evaluated four atmospheric dispersion models (ADMS 4.1; AERMOD v07026; OPS-st v3.0.3 and LADD v2010) for a range of hypothetical case studies representing the atmospheric dispersion from several agricultural NH3 source types. The best agreement between the mean annual concentration predictions of the models was found for simple scenarios with area and volume sources. The agreement between the predictions of the models was worst for the scenario representing the dispersion from a mechanically ventilated livestock house, for which ADMS predicted significantly smaller concentrations than the other models. The reason for these differences appears to be due to the interaction of different plume-rise and boundary layer parameterisations. All four dispersion models were applied to two real case studies of dispersion of NH3 from pig farms in Falster (Denmark) and North Carolina (USA). The mean annual concentration predictions of the models were similar for the USA case study (emissions from naturally ventilated pig houses and a slurry lagoon). The comparison of model predictions with mean annual measured concentrations and the application of established statistical model acceptability criteria concluded that all four models performed acceptably for this case study. This was not the case for the Danish case study (mechanically ventilated pig house) for which the LADD model did not perform acceptably due to the lack of plume-rise processes in the model. Regulatory dispersion models often perform poorly in low wind speed conditions due to the model dispersion theory being inapplicable at low wind speeds. For situations with frequent low wind speed periods, current modelling guidance for regulatory assessments is to use a model that can handle these conditions in an acceptable way. This may not always be possible due to insufficient meteorological data and so the only option may be to carry out the assessment using a more common regulatory model, such as the advanced Gaussian models ADMS or AERMOD. In order to assess the suitability of these models for low wind conditions, they were applied to a Mediterranean case study that included many periods of low wind speed. The case study was the dispersion of NH3 emitted by a pig farm in Segovia, Central Spain, for which mean monthly atmospheric NH3 concentration measurements were made at 21 locations surrounding the farm as well as high-temporal-resolution concentration measurements at one location during a one-week campaign. Two strategies to improve the model performance for low wind speed conditions were tested. These were ‘no zero wind’ (NZW), which replaced calm periods with the minimum threshold wind speed of the model and ‘accumulated calm emissions’ (ACE), which forced the model to emit the total emissions during a calm period during the first subsequent non-calm hour. Due to large uncertainties in the model input data (NH3 emission rates, source exit velocities, boundary layer parameters), the case study was also used to assess model prediction uncertainty and assess how this uncertainty can be taken into account in model evaluations. A dynamic emission model modified for the Mediterranean climate was used to estimate the temporal variability in NH3 emission rates and a comparison was made between the simulations using the dynamic emissions and a constant emission rate. Prediction uncertainty due to model input uncertainty was 67-98% of the mean value for ADMS and between 53-83% of the mean value for AERMOD. Most of this uncertainty was due to source emission rate uncertainty (~50%), followed by uncertainty in the meteorological conditions (~10-20%) and uncertainty in exit velocities (~5-10%). AERMOD predicted higher concentrations than ADMS and more of the simulations met the model acceptability criteria when compared with the annual mean measured concentrations. However, the ADMS predictions were better correlated spatially with the measurements. The use of dynamic emission estimates improved the performance of ADMS but worsened the performance of AERMOD and the application of strategies to improved model performance had similar contradictory effects. In order to compare different inverse modelling techniques, several models (ADMS, LADD and WindTrax) were applied to a non-agricultural case study of a penguin colony in Antarctica. This case study was used since it gave the opportunity to provide the first experimentally-derived emission factor for an Antarctic penguin colony and also had the advantage of negligible background concentrations. There was sufficient agreement between the emission estimates obtained from the three models to define an emission factor for the penguin colony (1.23 g NH3 per breeding pair per day with an uncertainty range of 0.8-2.54 g NH3 per breeding pair per day). This emission estimate compared favourably to the value obtained using a simple micrometeorological technique (aerodynamic gradient) of 0.98 g ammonia per breeding pair per day (95% confidence interval: 0.2-2.4 g ammonia per breeding pair per day). Further application of the inverse modelling techniques for a range of agricultural case studies also demonstrated good agreement between the emission estimates. It is concluded, therefore, that inverse dispersion modelling is a robust technique for estimating NH3 emission rates. Screening models that can provide a quick and approximate estimate of environmental impacts are a useful tool for impact assessments because they can be used to filter out cases that potentially have a minimal environmental impact allowing resources to be focussed on more potentially damaging cases. The Simple Calculation of Ammonia Impact Limits (SCAIL) model was developed as a screening model to provide an estimate of the mean NH3 concentration and dry deposition rate downwind of an agricultural source. This screening tool, based on the LADD model, was evaluated and calibrated with several experimental datasets and then validated using independent concentration measurements made near sources. Overall SCAIL performed acceptably according to established statistical criteria. This work has identified situations where the concentration predictions of dispersion models are similar and other situations where the predictions are significantly different. Some models are simply not designed to simulate certain scenarios since they do not include the relevant processes or are beyond the limits of their applicability. An example is the LADD model that is not applicable to sources with significant exit velocity since the model does not include a plume-rise parameterisation. The testing of a simple scheme combining a momentum-driven plume rise and increased turbulence at the source improved model performance, but more testing is required. Even models that are applicable and include the relevant process do not always give similar predictions and the reasons for this need to be investigated. AERMOD for example predicts higher concentrations than ADMS for dispersion from mechanically ventilated livestock housing. There is evidence to suggest that ADMS underestimates concentrations in these situations due to a high wind speed threshold. Conversely, there is also evidence that AERMOD overestimates concentrations in these situations due to overestimation at low wind speeds. However, a simple modification to the meteorological pre-processor appears to improve the performance of the model. It is important that these differences between the predictions of these models are taken into account in regulatory assessments. This can be done by applying the most suitable model for the assessment in question or, better still, using multiple or hybrid models.

Efficiency at Rest: Magnetoencephalographic Resting-State Connectivity and Individual Differences in Verbal Working Memory

Inter-individual differences in cognitive performance are based on an efficient use of task-related brain resources. However, little is known yet on how these differences might be reflected on resting-state brain networks. Here we used Magnetoencephalography resting-state recordings to assess the relationship between a behavioral measurement of verbal working memory and functional connectivity as measured through Mutual Information. We studied theta (4?8 Hz), low alpha (8?10 Hz), high alpha (10?13 Hz), low beta (13?18 Hz) and high beta (18?30 Hz) frequency bands. A higher verbal working memory capacity was associated with a lower mutual information in the low alpha band, prominently among right-anterior and left-lateral sensors. The results suggest that an efficient brain organization in the domain of verbal working memory might be related to a lower resting-state functional connectivity across large-scale brain networks possibly involving right prefrontal and left perisylvian areas.

How to optimize the use of available OCW resources?

Como optimizar el uso de los recursos disponibles

Impacts of the EU Biofuel Target on Agricultural Markets and Land Use - A Comparative Modelling Assessment

The Renewable Energy Directive (2009/28/EC) requires that 20% of the EU's energy needs should come from renewable sources by 2020, and includes a target for the transport sector of 10% from biofuels. This report analyses and discusses the global impacts of this biofuel target on agricultural production, markets and land use, as simulated by three agricultural sector models, AGLINK-COSIMO, ESIM and CAPRI. The impacts identified include higher EU production of ethanol and biodiesel, and of the crops used to produce them, as well as more imports of both biofuels. Trade flows of biofuel feedstocks also change to reflect greater EU demand, including a significant increase in vegetable oil imports. However, as the extra demand is small in world market terms, the impact on world market prices is limited. With the EU biofuel target, global use of land for crop cultivation is higher by 5.2 million hectares. About one quarter is area within the EU, some of which would otherwise have left agriculture.

The role of land and water for trade and food production in Latin America: Environmental trade-offs of agricultural intensification versus extensification

One of humanity’s major challenges of the 21st century will be meeting future food demands on an increasingly resource constrained-planet. Global food production will have to rise by 70 percent between 2000 and 2050 to meet effective demand which poses major challenges to food production systems. Doing so without compromising environmental integrity is an even greater challenge. This study looks at the interdependencies between land and water resources, agricultural production and environmental outcomes in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), an area of growing importance in international agricultural markets. Special emphasis is given to the role of LAC’s agriculture for (a) global food security and (b) environmental sustainability. We use the International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT)—a global dynamic partial equilibrium model of the agricultural sector—to run different future production scenarios, and agricultural trade regimes out to 2050, and assess changes in related environmental indicators. Results indicate that further trade liberalization is crucial for improving food security globally, but that it would also lead to more environmental pressures in some regions across Latin America. Contrasting land expansion versus more intensified agriculture shows that productivity improvements are generally superior to agricultural land expansion, from an economic and environmental point of view. Finally, our analysis shows that there are trade-offs between environmental and food security goals for all agricultural development paths.

N2O emissions and N efficiency due to tillage systems and crop rotation under a rainfed Mediterranean agroecosystem

Application of nitrogen (N) fertilizers in agricultural soils increases the risk of N loss to the atmosphere in the form of ammonia (NH3), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitric oxide (NO)and the water bodies as nitrate (NO3-). The implementation of agricultural management practices can affect these losses. In Mediterranean irrigation systems, the greatest losses of NO3-through leaching occur within the irrigation and the intercropperiod. One way to abate these losses during the intercrop period is the use of cover crops that absorb part of the residual N from the root zone (Gabriel and Quemada, 2011). Moreover, during the following crop, these species could be applied as amendments to the soil, providing both C and N to the soil. This effect of cover and catch crops on decreasing the pool of N potentially lost has focused primarily on NO3-leaching. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of cover crops on N2O emission during the in tercrop period in a maize system and its subsequent incorporation into the soil in the following maize crop.

Mapping Genetic Diversity of Cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill.): Application of Spatial Analysis for Conservation and Use of Plant Genetic Resources.

There is a growing call for inventories that evaluate geographic patterns in diversity of plant genetic resources maintained on farm and in species' natural populations in order to enhance their use and conservation. Such evaluations are relevant for useful tropical and subtropical tree species, as many of these species are still undomesticated, or in incipient stages of domestication and local populations can offer yet-unknown traits of high value to further domestication. For many outcrossing species, such as most trees, inbreeding depression can be an issue, and genetic diversity is important to sustain local production. Diversity is also crucial for species to adapt to environmental changes. This paper explores the possibilities of incorporating molecular marker data into Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to allow visualization and better understanding of spatial patterns of genetic diversity as a key input to optimize conservation and use of plant genetic resources, based on a case study of cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill.), a Neotropical fruit tree species. We present spatial analyses to (1) improve the understanding of spatial distribution of genetic diversity of cherimoya natural stands and cultivated trees in Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru based on microsatellite molecular markers (SSRs); and (2) formulate optimal conservation strategies by revealing priority areas for in situ conservation, and identifying existing diversity gaps in ex situ collections. We found high levels of allelic richness, locally common alleles and expected heterozygosity in cherimoya's putative centre of origin, southern Ecuador and northern Peru, whereas levels of diversity in southern Peru and especially in Bolivia were significantly lower. The application of GIS on a large microsatellite dataset allows a more detailed prioritization of areas for in situ conservation and targeted collection across the Andean distribution range of cherimoya than previous studies could do, i.e. at province and department level in Ecuador and Peru, respectively.

Analysis and Potential of Use of Biomass Energy in Canary Islands, Spain

Biomass has always been associated with the development of the population in the Canary Islands as the first source of elemental energy that was in the archipelago and the main cause of deforestation of forests, which over the years has been replaced by forest fossil fuels. The Canary Islands store a large amount of energy in the form of biomass. This may be important on a small scale for the design of small power plants with similar fuels from agricultural activities, and these plants could supply rural areas that could have self-sufficiency energy. The problem with the Canary Islands for a boost in this achievement is to ensure the supply to the consumer centers or power plants for greater efficiency that must operate continuously, allowing them to have a resource with regularity, quality and at an acceptable cost. In the Canary Islands converge also a unique topography with a very rugged terrain that makes it greater difficult to use and significantly more expensive. In this work all these aspects are studied, giving conclusions, action paths and theoretical potentials.

Irrigated agriculture: Water resources management for a sustainable environment

In the last decade, research on irrigation has mainly been aimed at reducing crop water consumption. In arid and semi-arid environments, in relation to the limited water resources, the use of low quality water in agriculture has also been investigated in order to detect their effects on soil physical properties and on crop production. More recently, even the reduction of energy consumption in agriculture, as well as the effects of external factors, climate change and agricultural policies, have been major research interests. All these objectives have been considered in the papers included in this special issue. However, in the last years, approaches aimed at reducing crop water requirements have significantly changed. Remote sensing with satellites or unmanned vehicles, and vegetation spectral measurements, among others, represent in fact the newest frontier of existing technologies. Knowledge of soil hydraulic properties, often forgotten because of the difficulty of their estimation, can also be considered as a new way to reduce water consumption.

Testing of crop Models for Accurate Predictions of Evapotranspiration and crop Water Use

All crop models, whether site-specific or global-gridded and regardless of crop, simulate daily crop transpiration and soil evaporation during the crop life cycle, resulting in seasonal crop water use. Modelers use several methods for predicting daily potential evapotranspiration (ET), including FAO-56, Penman-Monteith, Priestley-Taylor, Hargreaves, full energy balance, and transpiration water efficiency. They use extinction equations to partition energy to soil evaporation or transpiration, depending on leaf area index. Most models simulate soil water balance and soil-root water supply for transpiration, and limit transpiration if water uptake is insufficient, and thereafter reduce dry matter production. Comparisons among multiple crop and global gridded models in the Agricultural Model Intercomparison and Improvement Project (AgMIP) show surprisingly large differences in simulated ET and crop water use for the same climatic conditions. Model intercomparisons alone are not enough to know which approaches are correct. There is an urgent need to test these models against field-observed data on ET and crop water use. It is important to test various ET modules/equations in a model platform where other aspects such as soil water balance and rooting are held constant, to avoid compensation caused by other parts of models. The CSM-CROPGRO model in DSSAT already has ET equations for Priestley-Taylor, Penman-FAO-24, Penman-Monteith-FAO-56, and an hourly energy balance approach. In this work, we added transpiration-efficiency modules to DSSAT and AgMaize models and tested the various ET equations against available data on ET, soil water balance, and season-long crop water use of soybean, fababean, maize, and other crops where runoff and deep percolation were known or zero. The different ET modules created considerable differences in predicted ET, growth, and yield.

Linked Data for sharing, discovery and re-use of Language Resources at a Web scale

Conferencia por invitación, impartida el 31 d mayo de 2014 en el Workshop on Language Technology Service Platforms: Synergies, Standards, Sharing at LREC2014

Estrategias de desarrollo sostenible de la arquitectura del oasis de M’hamid, desierto del Sahara

Esta investigación se plantea con la hipótesis radical de cómo habitar el desierto de forma sostenible, desde una actitud pragmática y experimental basada en el progreso. La justificación se basa en primer lugar en los 2.000 millones de personas en el mundo que viven en entornos desérticos, el 80% de ellas, en países en desarrollo, porque el 40% de la superficie terrestre está bajo amenaza de desertificación afectando al 37% de la población mundial, con 12 millones de hectáreas al año perdidas por esa causa, y por último, porque se considera el desierto como un entorno de gran atractivo y potencial. El contenido de la investigación se estructura en tres movimientos: posicionamiento, mirada y acción: Desde el posicionamiento se define en primer lugar la sostenibilidad, aportando un nuevo diagrama donde se incorpora el ámbito arquitectónico como uno de los pilares principales, y, posteriormente, se establecen los criterios de evaluación de la sostenibilidad, aportando un sistema de indicadores donde se incorporan parámetros adecuados a las circunstancias del oasis. Del mismo modo, se estudian y analizan metodologías de actuación y proyectos de desarrollo sostenible existentes que enmarcan el estado del arte, constatando la dificultad de adaptación de los mismos a las condiciones de los oasis, por lo que se elabora una metodología propia donde se modifica la dinámica estratégica, de forma que el impulso se plantea desde la acción social, a través de hipótesis de estrategias basadas en sistemas low-cost, autoconstruidas, asumibles económicamente y de implantación factible. El caso de estudio específico radica en la situación extrema de las condiciones en el oasis de M’hamid, donde se evidencia un proceso de desintegración y abandono. Esto es debido a una acumulación de circunstancias externas e internas, de múltiples factores: naturales y antrópicos que afectan al oasis, llevando al extremo las condiciones climáticas y la escasez de recursos, naturales y artificiales. Factores como el cambio climático, la sequía, los cambios en las políticas del agua, la amenaza de desertificación, los conflictos sociales, el desequilibrio ecológico, la escasez económica, la crisis energética, la obsolescencia arquitectónica, el patrimonio construido prácticamente destruido, y la malentendida nueva arquitectura. Es importante constatar la escasa documentación gráfica existente sobre la zona de actuación lo que ha conllevado un amplio trabajo de documentación, tanto cartográfica como de observación directa, aportada a la tesis como investigación de elaboración propia. La mirada analítica al caso de estudio permite conocer los recursos disponibles y las potencialidades latentes del oasis de M’hamid, que permitirán actuar para subvertir la dinámica involutiva imperante, de forma que los dibujos iniciales de apropiación contextual y análisis críticos derivan en mapas de acción diagramados conformados por un sistema de objetos y la definición de estrategias transversales, deconstruyendo el pasado y reconstruyendo el futuro, incorporando sistemas alternativos que se definen en 7 líneas estratégicas de acción formuladas desde los 3 ámbitos relacionados con el ecosistema: ecológico, socio- económico y arquitectónico. Así, la tesis defiende la acción arquitectónica como impulsora del desarrollo sostenible, apoyada en 3 elementos: - la creación de objetos “tecnoartesanos”, para el aprovechamiento de los recursos energéticos - las transformaciones arquitectónicas, para reformular el hábitat desde la eficiencia energética y el progreso - y el impulso de acciones cotidianas, que redefinan las relaciones sociales, creando entornos cooperativos y colaborativos. En el ámbito ecológico se proponen actuaciones anti desertificación mediante incubadoras de árboles; sistemas alternativos de gestión del agua, como la lluvia sólida; estrategias de potenciación de la producción agrícola; la construcción de mecanismos de obtención de energía a partir de residuos, como los paneles solares con botellas PET. En el ámbito socioeconómico se plantean nuevas formas de acción social y de reactivación económica. Por último, en el ámbito urbano-arquitectónico, se incorporan modificaciones morfológicas a la arquitectura existente y una relectura contemporánea de la tierra, como material que permite nuevas geometrías, obteniendo arena petrificada por procesos microbiológicos, y potenciando la tierra como recurso artístico. Esta tesis es un punto de partida, recoge sistemas, estrategias y experiencias, para funcionar como un estímulo o impulso dinamizador del futuro desarrollo sostenible del oasis, abriendo vías de investigación y experimentación. ABSTRACT This research puts forth the radical hypothesis of how to inhabit the desert in a sustainable way, using a pragmatic and experimental approach based on progress. The justification for this resides in the fact that there are 2,000 million people in the world living in desert environments, 80% of them in developing countries. Forty percent of the earth’s surface is under threat of desertification, affecting 37% of the world population and with 12 million hectares being lost each year. And finally, the desert is considered as an attractive environment and therefore, with great potential. The content of the research is structured in three main sections: positioning, observation and action: As a point of departure, sustainability is defined, proposing a new framework where architecture is incorporated as one of the main pillars. Then, the criteria for evaluating sustainability are established. These provide a system of indicators, which incorporate parameters based on the specific circumstances of the oasis. Methodologies and existing sustainable development projects that represent the state-of-the-art are analyzed, discussing the difficulty of adapting them to conditions of oases. A methodology that modifies strategic concepts is developed, whereby the catalyst is social action, and strategies are developed based on low-cost, self-built, and feasible implementation systems. The specific case study lies in the extreme conditions in the oasis of M'hamid, where a process of decay and neglect is evident. This deterioration is due to an accumulation of external and internal circumstances, and of natural and anthropogenic factors that affect the oasis, leading to extreme weather conditions and a shortage of both natural and artificial resources. Factors include; climate change, drought, changes in water policies, the threat of desertification, social conflicts, ecological imbalance, economic shortage, the energy crisis, architectural obsolescence, destruction of built heritage, and misunderstood new architecture. It is important to note the extremely limited graphic information about the area has led me to produce an extensive archive of maps and drawings, many developed by direct observation, that contribute to the research. The case study analysis of the oasis of M'hamid examines the resources available and the latent potential to slow the prevailing trend towards deterioration. The initial drawings of contextual appropriation and critical analysis result in maps and diagrams of action, which are formed by a system of objects and the definition of strategies. These can be thought of as understanding or “deconstructing” the past to reconstruct the future. Alternative approaches defined in seven strategies for action are based on three fields related to the ecosystem: ecological, socioeconomic and architectural. Thus, the thesis defends architectural action to promote sustainable development, based on three elements: - The creation of "techno-artisans", to make use of energy resources - Architectural changes, to reformulate habitat in terms of energy efficiency and progress - And the promotion of everyday actions, to redefine social relations, creating cooperative and collaborative environments. In the ecological field, I propose anti-desertification actions such as; tree incubators, alternative water management systems(such as solid rain),; strategies to empower the agricultural production, energy from low-cost systems made out from recycled materials(such as solar panels from PET bottles or wind turbine from bicycle wheels). In the socioeconomic sphere, I propose to implement new forms of social action and economic regeneration. Finally, within the urban and architectural field, I propose morphological changes to the existing architecture and a contemporary reinterpretation of the earth as a material that allows new geometries, creating petrified sand by microbiological processes or enhancing nature as an artistic and energy resource. This thesis is a starting point. It collects systems, strategies and experiences to serve as a stimulus or dynamic momentum for future sustainable development of the oasis, opening new avenues of research and experimentation. RÉSUMÉ Cette recherche part d'une hypothèse radicale : comment habiter le désert de façon durable, et ce à partir d'une approche pragmatique et expérimentale basée sur le progrès. Cette hypothèse se justifie en raison des 2 milliards de personnes qui dans le monde habitent des environnements désertiques, 80% d'entre eux dans des pays en voie de développement, mais aussi parce que 40% de la surface de la planète est sous menace de désertification, un phénomène affectant 37% de la population mondiale et qui cause la perte de 12 millions d'hectares par an; et enfin parce que le désert est considéré comme un environnement très attrayant et fort d’un grand potentiel. Le contenu de la recherche se divise en trois mouvements: le positionnement, le regard et l'action : Du point de vue du positionnement on définit tout d'abord la durabilité, présentant un nouveau schéma où le domaine de l'architecture devient un des principaux piliers, et, par la suite, des critères d'évaluation de la durabilité sont établis, en fournissant un système d’indicateurs qui intègre les paramètres appropriés aux circonstances de l'oasis. De même, des méthodologies et des projets de développement durable existants sont étudiés et analysés, ce qui encadre l'état de l'art, remarquant la difficulté de les adapter aux conditions des oasis. De cette difficulté découle l'élaboration d'une méthodologie qui modifie la dynamique stratégique, de sorte que l'impulsion provient de l'action sociale, à travers des hypothèses de stratégie basées sur des systèmes low-cost, auto-construits, et de mise en oeuvre économiquement viable. Le cas d'étude spécifique réside en la situation extrême des conditions de l'oasis de M’hamid, où un processus de décadence et de négligence est évident. Cela est dû à une accumulation de circonstances externes et internes, de multiples facteurs: les facteurs naturels et anthropiques qui affectent l'oasis, menant à l'extrême les conditions météorologiques et la pénurie de ressources, autant naturelles qu'artificielles. Des facteurs tels que le changement climatique, la sécheresse, les changements dans les politiques de l'eau, la menace de la désertification, les conflits sociaux, le déséquilibre écologique, la pénurie économique, la crise de l'énergie, l'obsolescence architecturale, le patrimoine bâti pratiquement détruit et une mauvais compréhensif de la nouvelle architecture. Il est important de de faire remarquer le peu d'informations graphiques du domaine d'action, ce qui a conduit à un vaste travail de documentation, autant cartographique que relative à l'observation directe. Cette documentation s'ajoute à la thèse en tant que recherche propre. Le regard analytique sur le cas d'étude permet de connaître les ressources disponibles et le potentiel latent de l'oasis de M’hamid, qui agiront pour renverser la dynamique d'involution en vigueur. Ainsi, les premiers dessins d'appropriation contextuelle et analyse critique deviennent des cartes d'action schématisées formées par un système d'objets et la définition de stratégies transversales, qui déconstruisent le passé et reconstruisent l'avenir, en incorporant des systèmes alternatifs qui se définissent sur 7 lignes stratégiques d'action formulées à partir des 3 domaines en relation avec l’écosystème: l’écologique, le socio-économique et l'architectural. Ainsi, la thèse défend l'action architecturale en tant que promotrice du développement durable, et ce basé sur 3 éléments: - la création d'objets "technoartisans" pour l'exploitation des ressources énergétiques - les modifications architecturales, pour reformuler l'habitat du point de vue de l'efficacité énergétique et le progrès - et la promotion des actions quotidiennes, pour redéfinir les relations sociales, et la création d'environnements de coopération et collaboration. Dans le domaine de l'écologie des actions de lutte contre la désertification sont proposées à travers des pépinières d'arbres, des systèmes alternatifs de gestion de l'eau comme par exemple la pluie solide, des stratégies de mise en valeur de la production agricole, la construction de mécanismes de production d'énergie à partir de résidus, tels que les panneaux solaires ou les bouteilles en PET. Dans le domaine socio-économique, l'on propose de nouvelles formes d'action sociale et de reprise économique. Enfin, dans le domaine de l'urbain et de l'architectural, on incorpore des changements morphologiques à l'architecture existante et une relecture contemporaine de la terre, comme matériau qui permet de nouvelles géométries, en obtenant du sable pétrifié par des procédés microbiologiques et en mettant en valeur la terre comme une ressource artistique. Cette thèse n'est qu'un point de départ. Elle recueille des systèmes, des stratégies et des expériences pour servir de stimulus ou d'impulsion dynamisatrice du futur développement durable de l'oasis, en ouvrant des voies de recherche et d'expérimentation.