A partial study of vertical distribution of conventional no-till seeders and spatial variability of seed depth placement of maize in the Alentejo region, Portugal

The requirements for a good stand in a no-till field are the same as those for conventional planting as well as added field and machinery management. Among the various factors that contribute towards producing a successful maize crop, seed depth placement is a key determinant. Although most no-till planters on the market work well under good soil and residue conditions, adjustments and even modifications are frequently needed when working with compacted or wet soils or with heavy residues. The main objective of this study, carried out in 2010, 2011 and 2012, was to evaluate the vertical distribution and spatial variability of seed depth placement in a maize crop under no-till conditions, using precision farming technologies and conventional no-till seeders. The results obtained indicate that the seed depth placement was affected by soil moisture content and forward speed. The seed depth placement was negatively correlated with soil resistance and seeding depth had a significant impact on mean emergence time and the percentage of emerged plants. Shallow average depth values and high coefficients of variation suggest a need for improvements in controlling the seeders’ sowing depth mechanism or more accurate calibration by operators in the field.

Spatial variability of seed depth placement of maize under no tillage in Alentejo, Portugal

Among the various factors that contribute towards producing a successful maize crop, seed depth placement is a key determinant, especially in a no-tillage system. The main objective of this work was to evaluate the spatial variability of seed depth placement and crop establishment in a maize crop under no-tillage conditions, using precision farming technologies. The obtained results indicate that seed depth placement was significantly affected by soil moisture content, while a very high coefficient of variation of 39% was found for seed depth. Seeding depth had a significant impact on mean emergence time and percentage of emerged plants. Shallow average depth values and the high coefficient of variation suggest a need for improvement in controlling the seeders sowing depth.

Asociación entre caracteres biométricos y calidad fisiológica en semillas de tomate (Solanum lycopersicum L.)

La clasificación de las semillas de especies olerícolas se realiza principalmente por peso y tamaño, con criterios similares a los aplicados en cereales y leguminosas, en que se asocia positivamente estos atributos físicos con la calidad fisiológica. No obstante lo anterior, en diversas especies de hortalizas la información es escasa y contradictoria al respecto, lo que motiva la realización de la presente investigación. En semillas de tomate (Solanum lycopersicum L.) se determinó el efecto del peso y tamaño sobre la calidad fisiológica expresada como germinación y vigor. Además, se correlacionaron los resultados de las pruebas de evaluación de calidad fisiológica y se describieron variables del crecimiento y desarrollo. Se utilizaron lotes de diferentes variedades de semillas híbridas de cuatro temporadas, producidas en un clima templado cálido con lluvias invernales y estación seca prolongada (32º 54’ y 34° 21´ latitud Sur). Se midió peso y tamaño de semillas, además en dos temporadas se evaluaron las características internas de área y peso de embrión y área de endospermo. Se determinó la calidad de las semillas con la prueba de germinación y según fuera el año de estudio se midió vigor con las pruebas de envejecimiento acelerado, de plantas útiles al trasplante y de plántulas emergidas. Con análisis de imágenes y rayos X se extrajeron datos del tamaño externo e interno de las semillas y plántulas. Los lotes se compararon mediante análisis de varianza y las medias con la prueba de Tukey, la asociación entre dos variables se determinó con correlaciones de Pearson, las variables de peso y tamaño de la semilla y su relación con las pruebas de calidad, se analizaron mediante regresiones múltiples. Se utilizó un nivel de significación de 0,05 de probabilidad. Los resultados indicaron que el tamaño y no el peso de las semillas de tomate, diferenciaron calidad entre lotes en las diversas variedades. La prueba de germinación tuvo una baja sensibilidad para discriminar lotes, además de una escasa correlación con las características físicas de las semillas, cuando hubo asociación, la relación fue débil y negativa. La prueba de vigor de envejecimiento acelerado diferenció lotes y presentó escasa asociación con las características físicas de las semillas. El número de semillas germinadas en la prueba de envejecimiento acelerado se explicó por el efecto del tamaño de las semillas, mientras que las fracciones de descarte se asociaron con el peso de las mismas. La prueba de vigor de plantas útiles al trasplante no discriminó entre lotes. Tuvo una asociación débil con el peso y tamaño de las semillas. El modelo asociado a esta relación explicó con un alto coeficiente de determinación que el peso de la semilla influyó sobre la emergencia temprana, mientras que la relación fue menor y negativa con plantas de mayor desarrollo. La prueba de vigor de plántulas emergidas discriminó lotes de semillas con plántulas de 3 a 5 días después de siembra. Hubo escasa y débil asociación entre esta prueba y las características de peso y tamaño las semillas. El modelo de predicción de plántulas emergidas fue particular en cada temporada, cuando hubo un coeficiente de determinación alto influyó negativamente el peso o tamaño de la semilla. Entre las pruebas de calidad fisiológica evaluadas en semillas de tomate hubo escasas correlaciones significativas. Entre germinación y vigor las correlaciones significativas fueron débiles y sólo se encontraron en algunas temporadas de evaluación. Entre las pruebas de vigor no hubo asociación. En las pruebas de vigor de plantas útiles al trasplante y de plántulas emergidas, los cotiledones alcanzaron el mayor porcentaje de materia seca y se correlacionaron fuertemente con la materia seca total. En la prueba de plántulas emergidas la materia seca de las radículas diferenció parcialmente lotes de semillas al igual que la longitud total y de las radículas. La longitud de la radícula se correlacionó fuertemente con la longitud total de plántulas. ABSTRACT Seed selection for olericultural species is mainly carried out considering weight and size with similar criteria to those applied in cereals and legumes where size and physiological quality are favorably associated. However, information about several species is limited and contradictory regarding the above, leading to the present research. In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) seeds, the effect of weight and size on the physiological quality expressed as germination and vigor was determined. In addition, results of quality evaluation tests were correlated and variables of growth and development were described. Batches of hybrid seeds from four seasons were used. These seeds were produced in a mild warm climate with winter rainfalls and long dry season (32º 54’ and 34° 21´South Latitude). Seed weight and size were determined, additionally internal characteristics such as embryo area and weight as well as endosperm area were evaluated in two seasons. The quality of seeds was established using the germination test and, depending on the year of the study, vigor was measured through accelerated aging tests for plants useful for transplanting and emerged seedlings. Using imaging analysis and X rays, data regarding external and internal size of seeds and seedlings were obtained. Batches were compared through ANOVA and means using Tukey’s test; the association between both variables was determined with Pearson correlations, whereas variables of seed weight and size and their relation to quality tests were analyzed through multiple regressions. A significance level of 0.05 probability was used. Results showed that the size (but not the weight) of tomatoes differentiates quality between batches from several seasons. The germination test was not sensitive enough to discriminate batches in addition to having a limited correlation with the characteristics of seeds, when they were associated, the relation was weak and unfavorable. Vigor test for accelerated aging made the difference between batches and presented low association with physical characteristics of the seeds. The number of germinated seeds in the accelerated aging test was explained by the effect of the seed size, whereas cull fractions were associated with their weight. The vigor test of plants useful for transplanting did not discriminate between batches. The association with seed weight and size was weak. The model associated to this relation explained, with a high coefficient determination, that the seed weight had influence on early emergence, whereas the relation was minor and unfavorable with more developed plants. Vigor test of emerged seedlings discriminated batches of seeds with seedlings of 3 to 5 days after sowing. There was a limited and weak association between this test and the characteristics of seed weight and size. The prediction model for seedlings emerged was particular in each season, when the determination coefficient was high, seed weight and size influenced negatively. Among the physiological quality tests evaluated in tomato seeds, significant correlations were negligible. Between germination and vigor, significant correlations were poor, being only found in some evaluation seasons. There was no association in the vigor tests. In vigor tests for plants useful for transplanting and emerged seedlings, cotyledons reached the highest percentage of dry matter and were strongly correlated with total dry matter. In the test of emerged seedlings, dry matter of radicles partially differentiated batches of seeds as well as total length and radicles. Radicle length was strongly correlated with total seedlings length.

Evaluating sustainability and food security of peasant farming systems in Mesoamerican highlands

En las últimas décadas, la agricultura sostenible ha sido objeto de gran interés y debate académico, no sólo en términos conceptuales, sino también en términos metodológicos. La persistencia de la inseguridad alimentaria y el deterioro de los recursos naturales en muchas regiones del mundo, ha provocado el surgimiento de numerosas iniciativas centradas en revitalizar la agricultura campesina así como renovadas discusiones sobre el rol que juega la agricultura como motor de desarrollo y principal actividad para alivio de la pobreza. Por ello, cuando hablamos de evaluar sistemas campesinos de montaña, debemos considerar tanto la dimensión alimentaria como las especificidades propias de los sistemas montañosos como base fundamental de la sostenibilidad. Al evaluar la contribución que han hecho alternativas tecnológicas y de manejo en la mejora de la sostenibilidad y la seguridad alimentaria de los sistemas campesinos de montaña en Mesoamérica, surgen tres preguntas de investigación: • ¿Se está evaluando la sostenibilidad de los sistemas campesinos teniendo en cuenta la variabilidad climática, la participación de los agricultores y las dinámicas temporales? • ¿Podemos rescatar tendencias comunes en estos sistemas y extrapolar los resultados a otras zonas? • ¿Son inequívocamente positivas las alternativas propuestas que se han llevado a cabo? En este trabajo se presentan tres evaluaciones de sostenibilidad que tratan de poner de manifiesto cuáles son los retos y oportunidades que enfrentan actualmente los sistemas campesinos de montaña. En primer lugar, se evalúan tres sistemas de manejo agrícola bajo dos años meteorológicamente contrastantes. Se determinó que durante el año que experimentó lluvias abundantes y temperaturas moderadas, los sistemas de bajos insumos, basados en el uso de abonos orgánicos y rotación de cultivos, obtuvieron los mejores resultados en indicadores ecológicos y similares resultados en los económicos y sociales que el sistema de altos insumos químicos. En el segundo año, con heladas tempranas y sequía invernal, la productividad se redujo para todos los sistemas pero los sistemas más diversificados (en variedades de maíz y/o siembra de otros cultivos) pudieron resistir mejor los contratiempos climáticos. En segundo lugar, se evalúa el grado de conocimiento (percepción) campesino para determinar los factores claves que determinan la sostenibilidad de sus sistemas y su seguridad alimentaria. Se determinó que los principales puntos críticos identificados por los campesinos (tamaño de parcela y pendiente del terreno) afectan de forma significativa a cuestiones de índole económica, pero no son capaces de explicar los desequilibrios alimenticios existentes. Realizando un análisis comparativo entre comunidades que presentaban buenos y malos resultados en cuanto a aporte energético y proteico, se determinó que la seguridad alimentaria estaba relacionada con la sostenibilidad de los sistemas y que concretamente estaba ligada a los atributos de equidad y autonomía. Otro resultado destacable fue que las comunidades más marginales y con mayor dificultad de acceso mostraron mayores niveles de inseguridad alimentaria, pero la variabilidad intergrupal fue muy alta. Eso demuestra que la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional forma parte de un complejo sistema de estrategias de autoabastecimiento ligada a la idiosincrasia misma de cada uno de los hogares. En tercer lugar, se evaluó el desempeño de las escuelas de campo de agricultores (ECAs) en la mejora de la sostenibilidad y la seguridad alimentaria de un sistema campesino de montaña. Para ver el efecto del impacto de estas metodologías a largo plazo, se estudiaron tres comunidades donde se habían implementado ECAs hace 8, 5 y 3 años. Encontramos que el impacto fue progresivo ya que fue la comunidad más antigua la que mejores valores obtuvo. El impacto de las ECAs fue rápido y persistente en los indicadores relacionados con la participación, el acceso a servicios básicos y la conservación de los recursos naturales. El estudio demostró un claro potencial de las ECAs en la mejora general de la sostenibilidad y la seguridad alimentaria de estos sistemas, sin embargo se observó una relación directa entre el aumento de producción agrícola y el uso de insumos externos, lo que puede suponer un punto crítico para los ideales sostenibles. ABSTRACT During the last decades, sustainable agriculture has been the subject of considerable academic interest and debate, not only in conceptual terms, but also in methodological ones. The persistence of high levels of environmental degradation and food insecurity in many regions has led to new initiatives focused on revitalizing peasant agriculture and renewed discussions of the role of sustainable agriculture as an engine for development, environmental conservation and poverty alleviation. Therefore, to assess mountain farming systems, we must consider food dimension and taking into account the specificities of the mountain systems as the foundation of sustainability. When evaluating contribution of technological and management alternative proposals in achieving sustainability and food security for peasant farming systems in Mesoamerican highlands, three research questions arise: • Is sustainability of peasant-farming systems being evaluated taking into account climate variability, participation of farmers and temporal dynamics? • Can we rescue common trends in these systems and extrapolate the results to other areas? • What alternative proposals that have been conducted are unequivocally positives? In this document, we present three evaluations of sustainability that try to highlight the challenges and opportunities that currently face mountain farming systems in Mesoamerica. First, we evaluate the sustainability of three agricultural management systems in two contrasting weather years. We determined that during the first year that exposed heavy rains and moderate temperatures, low-input systems, which are based on the use of organic fertilizers and crop rotation, provided better results in terms of ecological indicators and equal results in terms of economic and social indicators than those achieved using a high chemical input system. In the second year, which featured early frosts and a winter drought, productivity declined in all systems; however, the most diversified systems (in terms of the maize varieties grown and the sowing of other crops) more successfully resisted these climatic adversities. Second, we evaluate the farmers’ perception to determine the key drivers for achieving their sustainability and food and nutritional security. We determined that the key factors identified by farmers (landholding size and slope of cropland) exerted significant impacts on economic disparities but did not explain the malnutrition levels. We compared two contrasting hamlets according to their energy and protein supply, one namely Limón Timoté (LT), which did not present food problems and Limón Peña Blanca (LP), which did exhibit food insecurity. The results showed that FNS is linked to sustainability, and it is primarily related to the sustainability attributes of self-reliance and equity. Although the more marginated and inaccessible community exhibited more food insecurity, food and nutritional security depend upon a complex array of self-sufficiency strategies that remain linked to individual household idiosyncrasies. Third, we evaluated the impact of farmer field schools for improving the sustainability and food security of peasant mountain systems. In order to appreciate the long-term impact, we studied three communities where FFSs were implemented eight, five and three years ago, respectively. We found that FFSs have a gradual impact, as the community that first implemented FFSs scores highest. The impact of FFSs was broad and long-lasting for indicators related to participation, access to basic services and conservation of natural resources. This study demonstrates the potential of FFSs, but more attention will have to be paid to critical indicators in order to scale up their potential in the future. We observed a direct relationship between the increase in agricultural production and the use of external inputs, which is a critical point for sustainable ideals.

La regeneración natural del pino silvestre (Pinus sylvestris L.) en el Valle del Lozoya (Madrid): germinación y supervivencia inicial

La fase de establecimiento del regenerado es un proceso crítico para el desarrollo posterior de la masa tanto por las elevadas tasas de mortalidad que habitualmente lleva asociadas, como por proporcionar el material de partida del que van a disponer las fases subsiguientes. Las restricciones a la germinación y establecimiento de la regeneración del pino silvestre varían enormemente entre las distintas regiones de su extensa área de distribución geográfica. La región Mediterránea constituye un hábitat marginal de la especie en el que las condiciones ecológicas son muy diferentes a las del grueso de su área de distribución. Frente a otras limitaciones (frío, luz, encharcamiento…), en el entorno mediterráneo la tasa de mortalidad parece estar asociada a las condiciones micrometeorológicas del período estival - particularmente, a la sequía -, así como a la presencia excesiva de ganado o ungulados silvestres. No obstante, la mayoría de la información disponible sobre el proceso de regeneración de la especie procede del centro y norte de Europa, por lo que no es de aplicación directa en nuestra región, en la que los estudios de este tipo son mucho más escasos. El presente trabajo pretende contribuir a paliar esta relativa escasez a través del estudio del proceso de regeneración natural en el monte “Cabeza de Hierro”, masa irregular por bosquetes de pino silvestre, paradigma de gestión sostenible y uso múltiple. En este entorno, se pretende caracterizar y cuantificar tanto el proceso de germinación y supervivencia de la especie como la influencia de la cobertura vegetal (estratos arbóreo, arbustivo y herbáceo, y capa de restos vegetales) en su desarrollo. Se persigue así mismo analizar el efecto de la compactación del suelo sobre la persistencia de la masa y contrastar y comparar la eficacia de dos tratamientos edáficos de ayuda a la regeneración: escarificado y decapado+acaballonado. Con este fin se han planteado dos diseños experimentales consistentes en sendas redes de muestreo (Red de Muestreo I o RM I y Red de Muestreo II o RM II) integradas, respectivamente, por 192 y 24 parcelas de 1,5x1,5 m ubicadas bajo distintas condiciones de cobertura vegetal. Sobre una parte de estas parcelas (1/4 en la Red de Muestreo I; 1/2 en la Red de Muestreo II) se han aplicado tratamientos de ayuda a la regeneración (RM I: escarificado; RM II: decapado+acaballonado) y, tras llevar a cabo siembras controladas al inicio del período vegetativo, se han practicado controles periódicos de germinación y supervivencia durante uno (RM II) y tres años consecutivos (RM I). Se han realizado así mismo mediciones complementarias de variables micrometeorológicas, espesura, recubrimiento superficial del suelo y compactación. Los resultados obtenidos a partir de las experiencias realizadas en el monte objeto de estudio permiten concluir que, en relación con el proceso de regeneración natural de la especie en este tipo masa y entorno: 1) la regeneración del pino silvestre durante el primer período vegetativo presenta una tasa de éxito muy baja (1,4% de los sembrados), provocada por una elevada mortalidad durante el primer período estival (>92%) subsiguiente a una germinación de en torno al 17% de las semillas viables que llegan al suelo; 2) la mortalidad sigue siendo elevada hasta el tercer período vegetativo, en que comienza a reducirse significativamente hasta alcanzar el 45%; 3) la cobertura vegetal influye significativamente tanto en el proceso de germinación como en el de supervivencia, aunque ambos procesos presentan una baja correlación linear que pone de manifiesto que los lugares idóneos para la germinación no siempre son los más adecuados para la supervivencia; 4) la escarificación del suelo mejora las tasas iniciales de germinación y supervivencia, pero empeora la tasa de supervivencia posterior (años 2 y 3), por lo que su efecto a medio plazo no resulta significativo; 5) el decapado+acaballonado presenta mejores resultados que el escarificado durante el primer verano, aunque sólo resulta efectivo en condiciones intermedias de espesura de masa; 6) la compactación edáfica no resulta limitante para la productividad ni la persistencia de la masa considerada. ABSTRACT Seedling establishment is critical for later stand progress because it involves high mortality rates and the surviving saplings constitute the starting material for all the subsequent stages. Restrictions for Scots pine germination and seedling survival may vary greatly across its geographical range, as it is widely distributed within north latitudes. Mediterranean region is a marginal sector within this species range and its ecological conditions differ greatly from those of the bulk of the area. Mortality rates in Mediterranean environments seem to be related to summer weather (mainly drought) and high livestock stocking rather than to cold, light or flooding. Most available information on scots pine regeneration process comes from north European experiences and is not transferable to Spanish forests, whereas studies on Mediterranean region are much scarcer. The present work aims at broadening Scots pine regeneration knowledge within Mediterranean region by analyzing its establishment process in the “Cabeza de Hierro” forest: a Scots pine uneven-aged forest at blocklevel scale, exemplary managed for multi-services purpose. Germination and surviving processes are to be characterized and quantified as to vegetation cover both in trees, shrubs, grass and litter strata. Soil compaction effects on forest sustainability are also assessed and the efficacy of some site preparation techniques on regeneration success is tested and compared (scarification vs. scalping+mounding). Two sampling networks comprising respectively 198 (SN I) and 24 plots (SN II) of 1.5x1.5m have been established over a wide range of vegetal cover conditions within the forest. Soil preparation techniques have been applied only to some of the sampling points; namely, 1 out of 4 plots have been scarified within Sampling Network I , while 1 out of 2 plots have been object of scalping & mounding within Sampling Network II. After localized sowing prior to growing season, germination and surviving have been periodically sampled for either one (SN II) or three years (SN I). Supplementary measures for micrometeorological variables, stand density, ground vegetal cover and compaction have also been carried out. Results obtained for the studied forest lead to the following insights regarding Scots pine natural regeneration process within this sort of forest and environment: 1) seedling establishment success rate is quite low (0,15% of sowing seeds), due to high mortality during the first summer (>92%), following a prior 17% rate of germination over viable seeds reaching the soil; 2) mortality rate remains high until the third year after emergence and then decreases to the 50% of surviving; 3) although vegetal cover significantly affects both seedling germination and survival, lineal correlation between those two processes is rather low, which may indicate that places fit for emergence are not necessarily suitable for summer surviving; 4) soil scarification improves both germination and survival during the first growing season, but it is associated to higher mortality rates during the next two years; hence it has no significant medium term effect; 5) scalping & mounding treatment is more effective than scarification concerning establishment improving during the first summer; but its effects are only significant under intermediate stand density levels; 6) soil compaction does not restrict either forest productivity or persistence, despite the area’s long history of high livestock stocking rates and mechanized logging.

Contribute to the Study of Vertical Distribution of Conventional No-Till Seeders and Spatial Variability of Seed Depth Placement of Maize in Alentejo, Portugal

Entre os vários fatores que contribuem para a produção de uma cultura de milho, a distribuição vertical dos semeadores avaliada através da localização da semente em profundidade é um fator-chave, especialmente na técnica de sementeira direta. Simultaneamente, dada a complexidade dos ecossistemas naturais e agrícolas em sistemas de agricultura de conservação, a gestão diferenciada e localizada das parcelas assume um importante papel na análise e gestão da variabilidade das propriedades do solo e estabelecimento das culturas, nomeadamente utilizando informação geo referenciada e tecnologia expedita. Assim, o principal objetivo desta Tese foi a avaliação em culturas de milho da variabilidade espacial da localização de semente em profundidade e estabelecimento da cultura em sementeira direta usando sistemas convencionais de controlo de profundidade, tendo-se comparado com diferentes sistemas de mobilização e recorrendo a tecnologias de agricultura de precisão. Os ensaios decorreram na região Mediterrânea do Alentejo, em propriedades agrícolas no decorrer das campanhas de 2010, 2011, 2012 e 2015 em 6 diferentes campos experimentais. O trabalho experimental consistiu em ensaios com avaliações in loco do solo e cultura, consumo de combustível das operações e deteção remota. Os resultados obtidos indicam que não só o sistema de mobilização afetou a localização da semente em profundidade, como em sementeira direta a profundidade de sementeira foi afetada pelo teor de humidade do solo, resistência do solo à profundidade e velocidade da operação de sementeira. Adicionalmente observaram-se condições heterogéneas de emergência e estabelecimento da cultura afetadas por condições físicas de compactação do solo. Comparando os diferentes sistemas de mobilização, obteve-se uma significativa redução de combustível para a técnica de sementeira direta, apesar de se terem observado diferenças estatísticas significativas considerando diferentes calibrações de profundidade de sementeira Do trabalho realizado nesta Tese ressalva-se a importância que as tecnologias de agricultura de precisão podem ter no acompanhamento e avaliação de culturas em sementeira direta, bem como a necessidade de melhores procedimentos no controlo de profundidade dos semeadores pelo respetivos operadores ou ao invés, a adoção de semeadores com mecanismos ativos de controlo de profundidade. ABSTRACT Among the various factors that contribute towards producing a successful maize crop, seeders vertical distribution evaluated through seed depth placement is a key determinant, especially under a no-tillage technique. At the same time in conservation agriculture systems due to the complexity of natural and agricultural ecosystems site specific management became an important approach to understand and manage the variability of soil properties and crop establishment, especially when using geo spatial information and affording readily technology Thus, the main objective of this Thesis was to evaluate the spatial variability of seed depth placement and crop establishment in maize crops under no-tillage conditions compared to different tillage systems, using conventional seed depth control no till seeders and precision farming technologies. Trials were carried out in the Mediterranean region of Alentejo, in private farms along the sowing operations season over the years 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2015 in 6 different experimental fields. Experimental work covered field tests with in loco soil and crop evaluations, fuel operation evaluations and aerial sensing. The results obtained indicate that not only tillage system affected seed depth placement but under no till conditions seed depth was affected by soil moisture content, soil resistance to penetration and seeders forward speed. In addition uneven crop seedling and establishment depended on seed depth placement and could be affected by physical problems of compaction layers. Significant reduction in fuel consumption was observed for no till operations although significant differences observed according to different setting calibrations of seed depth control. According to the results, precision agriculture is an important tool to evaluate crops under no till conditions and seed depth mechanisms should be more accurate by the operators or is determinant the adoption of new active depth control technology to improve seeders performance.

Seed germination characteristics of Phillyrea angustifolia L. and P. latifolia L. (Oleaceae), two Mediterranean shrub species having lignified endocarp

The aim of this study was to determine the germination characteristics of Phillyrea angustifolia L. and P. latifolia L. seeds in order to develop an optimized propagation protocol for Phillyrea species. Seeds of P. angustifolia and P. latifolia were collected from wild plants growing in Cáceres province (CW Spain) and Andalucía (S Spain), respectively. Percentage of water uptake for P. latifolia seeds was calculated. Seeds with and without endocarp were germinated at different constant and alternating temperatures. Seeds without endocarp were soaked in distilled water or gibberellic acid, and then set to germinate. Seeds with endocarp of both species were stratified at 5 ºC for 30 or 90 days and then the endocarp was completely removed from the seeds before they were sowed. Chemical scarification with sulfuric acid and mechanical scarification were tested on P. angustifolia seeds with endocarp. Phillyrea endocarp was permeable to water, since Phillyrea seeds with endocarp imbibed water, but water uptake was faster when the endocarp was removed. Moreover, the encodarp could interfere mechanically in the emergence of the radicle, since seed germination of Phillyrea species was promoted by the complete removal of the lignified endocarp surrounding each seed. Optimal germination temperature for both species was 15 ºC, and lower temperatures produced secondary dormancy. Soaking in distilled water or gibberellic acid did not significantly enhance seed germination. Cold stratification and chemical scarification treatments were detrimental for seed germination. Keywords cold stratification, Phillyrea species, treatments before sowing, seed germination, seed scarification, lignified endocarp.

Strategies for adapting maize to climate change and extreme temperatures in Andalusia, Spain

Climate projections indicate that rising temperatures will affect summer crops in the southern Iberian Peninsula. The aim of this study was to obtain projections of the impacts of rising temperatures, and of higher frequency of extreme events on irrigated maize, and to evaluate some adaptation strategies. The study was conducted at several locations in Andalusia using the CERES-Maize crop model, previously calibrated/validated with local experimental datasets. The simulated climate consisted of projections from regional climate models from the ENSEMBLES project; these were corrected for daily temperature and precipitation with regard to the E-OBS observational dataset. These bias-corrected projections were used with the CERES-Maize model to generate future impacts. Crop model results showed a decrease in maize yield by the end of the 21st century from 6 to 20%, a decrease of up to 25% in irrigation water requirements, and an increase in irrigation water productivity of up to 22%, due to earlier maturity dates and stomatal closure caused by CO2 increase. When adaptation strategies combining earlier sowing dates and cultivar changes were considered, impacts were compensated, and maize yield increased up to 14%, compared with the baseline period (1981-2010), with similar reductions in crop irrigation water requirements. Effects of extreme maximum temperatures rose to 40% at the end of the 21st century, compared with the baseline. Adaptation resulted in an overall reduction in extreme Tmax damages in all locations, with the exception of Granada, where losses were limited to 8%.

A Functional Calvin Cycle Is Not Indispensable for the Light Activation of C4 Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxylase Kinase and Its Target Enzyme in the Maize Mutant bundle sheath defective2-mutable11

We used a pale-green maize (Zea mays L.) mutant that fails to accumulate ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) to test the working hypothesis that the regulatory phosphorylation of C4 phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) by its Ca2+-insensitive protein-serine/threonine kinase (PEPC kinase) in the C4 mesophyll cytosol depends on cross-talk with a functional Calvin cycle in the bundle sheath. Wild-type (W22) and bundle sheath defective2-mutable1 (bsd2-m1) seeds were grown in a controlled environment chamber at 100 to 130 μmol m−2 s−1 photosynthetic photon flux density, and leaf tissue was harvested 11 d after sowing, following exposure to various light intensities. Immunoblot analysis showed no major difference in the amount of polypeptide present for several mesophyll- and bundle-sheath-specific photosynthetic enzymes apart from Rubisco, which was either completely absent or very much reduced in the mutant. Similarly, leaf net CO2-exchange analysis and in vitro radiometric Rubisco assays showed that no appreciable carbon fixation was occurring in the mutant. In contrast, the sensitivity of PEPC to malate inhibition in bsd2-m1 leaves decreased significantly with an increase in light intensity, and there was a concomitant increase in PEPC kinase activity, similar to that seen in wild-type leaf tissue. Thus, although bsd2-m1 mutant plants lack an operative Calvin cycle, light activation of PEPC kinase and its target enzyme are not grossly perturbed.

Extratos de Ascophyllum nodosum no tratamento de sementes de milho e soja: avaliações fisiológicas e moleculares

A obtenção de uma lavoura com população adequada de plantas depende da utilização de diferentes práticas agronômicas, estando o sucesso condicionado ao uso de sementes de boa qualidade. No entanto, a semeadura dificilmente é realizada em condições ideais o que resulta em problemas na emergência das plantas. Grande é a procura por alternativas que melhorem a germinação e o desenvolvimento inicial dos cultivos resultando em uniformidade de emergência, garantindo o estande e culminando em produção. O tratamento de sementes com agroquímicos fitossanitários é uma solução parcial no combate de agentes fitopatológicos e pragas, mas poucas são as soluções adotadas para melhorar o desenvolvimento vegetal inicial, que pode levar a desuniformidade e falhas no estande gerando prejuízos econômicos. Os extratos de algas já demonstraram em diversos estudos sua eficiência no desenvolvimento vegetal quando aplicados em plantas. Porém poucos são os estudos voltados para os efeitos dos extratos de algas na germinação e emergência. Assim, o intuito deste trabalho foi testar o extrato comercial de Ascophyllum nodosum, e diferentes fracionamentos do mesmo, no tratamento de sementes de soja e milho. Avaliou-se o efeito de diferentes doses no desenvolvimento das plântulas e as doses de melhor resposta foram utilizadas no tratamento de sementes de soja a fim de associar as respostas obtidas à expressão gênica de 9 genes relacionados ao processo germinativo em 24 e 48h de embebição. Sementes de soja tratadas com o extrato comercial resultaram em plântulas menos desenvolvidas o que pode estar relacionado ao alto teor de sais contidos no produto. O tratamento com as demais frações favoreceu o desenvolvimento das plântulas, principalmente o desenvolvimento radicular. Sementes de milho tratadas não apresentaram desenvolvimento tão satisfatório quanto as sementes de soja tratadas. A análise da expressão gênica relativa demonstrou que o tratamento com frações do extrato comercial é capaz de regular algumas vias do metabolismo hormonal, como a isopentenil transferase e a GA20 oxidase 2, e do catabolismo de reservas, como a acil-CoA oxidase. Em condições ótimas, o tratamento de sementes de soja com frações do extrato comercial de A. nodosum favoreceu o desenvolvimento inicial das plântulas de soja, no entanto não ocasionou grandes alterações no desenvolvimento de milho. Este estudo demonstrou a possibilidade de utilização de frações do extrato de A. nodosum no favorecimento do desenvolvimento inicial de plântulas de soja. Maiores estudos são necessários quanto às respostas em campo e na atenuação de estresses para viabilizar seu uso como um bioestimulante em sementes.

Estimation of Key Dates and Stages in Rice Crops Using Dual-Polarization SAR Time Series and a Particle Filtering Approach

Information of crop phenology is essential for evaluating crop productivity. In a previous work, we determined phenological stages with remote sensing data using a dynamic system framework and an extended Kalman filter (EKF) approach. In this paper, we demonstrate that the particle filter is a more reliable method to infer any phenological stage compared to the EKF. The improvements achieved with this approach are discussed. In addition, this methodology enables the estimation of key cultivation dates, thus providing a practical product for many applications. The dates of some important stages, as the sowing date and the day when the crop reaches the panicle initiation stage, have been chosen to show the potential of this technique.

Enriching plant diversity in grasslands by large-scale experimental sward disturbance and seed addition along gradients of land-use intensity

Aims The relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning is among the most active areas of ecological research. Furthermore, enhancing the diversity of degraded ecosystems is a major goal in applied restoration ecology. In grasslands, many species may be locally absent due to dispersal or microsite limitation and may therefore profit from mechanical disturbance of the resident vegetation. We established a seed addition and disturbance experiment across several grassland sites of different land use to test whether plant diversity can be increased in these grasslands. Additionally, the experiment will allow us testing the consequences of increased plant diversity for ecosystem processes and for the diversity of other taxa in real-world ecosystems. Here we present details of the experimental design and report results from the first vegetation survey one year after disturbance and seed addition. Moreover, we tested whether the effects of seed addition and disturbance varied among grassland depending on their land use or pre-disturbance plant diversity. Methods A full-factorial experiment was installed in 73 grasslands in three regions across Germany. Grasslands were under regular agricultural use, but varied in the type and the intensity of management, thereby representing the range of management typical for large parts of Central Europe. The disturbance treatment consisted of disturbing the top 10 cm of the sward using a rotavator or rotary harrow. Seed addition consisted of sowing a high-diversity seed mixture of regional plant species. These species were all regionally present, but often locally absent, depending on the resident vegetation composition and richness of each grassland. Important findings One year after sward disturbance it had significantly increased cover of bare soil, seedling species richness and numbers of seedlings. Seed addition had increased plant species richness, but only in combination with sward disturbance. The increase in species richness, when both seed addition and disturbance was applied, was higher at high land-use intensity and low resident diversity. Thus, we show that at least the early recruitment of many species is possible also at high land-use intensity, indicating the potential to restore and enhance biodiversity of species-poor agricultural grasslands. Our newly established experiment provides a unique platform for broad-scale research on the land-use dependence of future trajectories of vegetation diversity and composition and their effects on ecosystem functioning.

Direct-seeding pines in the South /

Bibliography: pages 62-67.

Some aspects of the war,

--The name of God and the war.--The war and America.--The "scrap of paper."--International brigandage.--Sowing thistles and gathering thorns.--The laws of war.--The law of necessity.--Visions of hatred.--Lying lips and murderous hands.--Molten lead.--Vergebliches ständchen.--The responsibility for the war.--The invasion of Canada.--Songs of war.--Why a Spanish-American should not be pro-German.--The "place in the sun."--Germanism in America.--The settlement of peace.--How to enforce the laws of war.

Range seeding equipment: handbook: description of equipment adapted or designed for use in range seeding and noxious range plant control.

Mode of access: Internet.