IFN-gamma Plays a Unique Role in Protection against Low Virulent Trypanosoma cruzi Strain

Background: T. cruzi strains have been divided into six discrete typing units (DTUs) according to their genetic background. These groups are designated T. cruzi I to VI. In this context, amastigotes from G strain (T. cruzi I) are highly infective in vitro and show no parasitemia in vivo. Here we aimed to understand why amastigotes from G strain are highly infective in vitro and do not contribute for a patent in vivo infection. Methodology/Principal Findings: Our in vitro studies demonstrated the first evidence that IFN-gamma would be associated to the low virulence of G strain in vivo. After intraperitoneal amastigotes inoculation in wild-type and knockout mice for TNF-alpha, Nod2, Myd88, iNOS, IL-12p40, IL-18, CD4, CD8 and IFN-gamma we found that the latter is crucial for controlling infection by G strain amastigotes. Conclusions/Significance: Our results showed that amastigotes from G strain are highly infective in vitro but did not contribute for a patent infection in vivo due to its susceptibility to IFN-gamma production by host immune cells. These data are useful to understand the mechanisms underlying the contrasting behavior of different T. cruzi groups for in vitro and in vivo infection.

Involvement of nitric oxide on the pathogenesis of irinotecan-induced intestinal mucositis: role of cytokines on inducible nitric oxide synthase activation

Purpose Intestinal mucositis and the closely associated diarrhea are common costly side effects of irinotecan. Cytokine modulators, such as thalidomide and pentoxifylline, are found capable of attenuating intestinal mucositis progression. Nitric oxide (NO) seems to be a key mediator of the antineoplastic drug toxicity. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of NO on the pathogenesis of intestinal mucositis, as well as the participation of cytokines upon inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in irinotecan-induced intestinal mucositis. Methods iNOS-knockout (iNOS(-/-)) and C57BL/6 (WT, wild type) animals (n = 5-6) were given either saline or irinotecan (60 mg/kg i.p for 4 days), with or without pretreatment with aminoguanidine (50 mg/kg s.c.), thalidomide (60 mg/kg s.c), infliximab (5 mg/kg i.v.), or pentoxifylline (1.7 mg/kg s.c). On day 5, diarrhea was assessed, and following euthanasia, proximal intestinal samples were obtained for myeloperoxidase (MPO) and iNOS activity, morphometric analysis, western blot and immunohistochemistry to iNOS, cytokine dosage, and for in vitro evaluation of gut contractility. Results Irinotecan induced severe diarrhea and intestinal smooth muscle over-contractility, accompanied with histopathological changes. Additionally, increased MPO and iNOS activity and iNOS immunoexpression were found in WT animals treated with irinotecan. The rise in MPO, smooth muscle over-contractility, and diarrhea were abrogated in aminoguanidine-treated and iNOS(-/-) mice. Moreover, through western blot, we verified that infliximab and pentoxifylline significantly inhibited irinotecan-induced iNOS expression. In addition, cytokine concentration was found only partially decreased in irinotecan-treated iNOS(-/-) mice when compared with wild-type animals that were given irinotecan. Conclusions This study suggests a role of nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of irinotecan-induced intestinal mucositis and also provides evidence for the participation of cytokines on iNOS induction.

The Role of Dyslipidemia on Ocular Surface, Lacrimal and Meibomian Gland Structure and Function

Purpose: Dyslipidemia is characterized by high lipid blood levels that are risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, which are leading causes of death. However, it is unclear whether dyslipidemia is a cause of the dry eye syndrome (DES). Therefore we determined in transgenic mice models of dyslipidemia, whether there is an association with DES development. Methods: Dyslipidemic models included male and female adult mice overexpressing apolipoprotein CIII (Apo CIII), LDL receptor knockout (LDLR-KO) and ApoE knockout (ApoE-KO). They were compared with age-and gender-matched C57BL/6 mice. Ocular health was evaluated based on corneal slit lamp assessment, phenol red thread test (PRT) and impression cytology. Blood lipid profiles and histology of meibomian and lacrimal glands were also evaluated. Effects of high-fat diet and aging were observed in LDLR-KO and ApoCIII strains, respectively. Results: Body weight and lacrimal gland weight were significantly higher in male mice compared to females of the same strain (P < 0.05). Body weight was significantly lower in LDLRKO mice receiving high lipid diet compared to their controls (P = 0.0043). ApoE-KO were hypercholesterolemic and ApoCIII hypertriglyceridemic while LDLR-KO showed increases in both parameters. The PRT test was lower in male LDLR-KO mice with high-fat diet than control mice with standard diet (P = 0.0273). Aging did not affect lacrimal structural or functional parameters of ApoCIII strain. Conclusions: DES development is not solely dependent on dyslipidemia in relevant mice models promoting this condition. On the other hand, lacrimal gland structure and function are differentially impacted by lipid profile changes in male and female mice. This dissociation suggests that other factors beside dyslipidemia impact on tear film dysfunction and DES development.

PTTG expression in different experimental and human prolactinomas in relation to dopaminergic control of lactotropes

Abstract Background Pituitary tumor transforming gene (pttg) is a novel oncogene that is expressed at higher level in most of the tumors analyzed to date compared to normal tissues. Nevertheless, its expression in prolactinomas and its relation with the pituitary dopamine receptor 2 (D2R) are not well defined. We sought to determine the pituitary level of pttg in three different experimental models of prolactinomas with altered dopaminergic control of the pituitary: the dopaminergic D2R knockout female mouse, the estrogen-treated rat, and the senescent female rat. These three models shared the characteristics of increased pituitary weight, hyperprolactinemia, lactotrope hyperplasia and reduced or absent dopaminergic action at the pituitary level. We also studied samples from human macroprolactinomas, which were characterized as responsive or resistant to dopamine agonist therapy. Results When compared to female wild-type mice, pituitaries from female D2R knockout mice had decreased PTTG concentration, while no difference in pttg mRNA level was found. In senescent rats no difference in pituitary PTTG protein expression was found when compared to young rats. But, in young female rats treated with a synthetic estrogen (Diethylstylbestrol, 20 mg) PTTG protein expression was enhanced (P = 0.029). Therefore, in the three experimental models of prolactinomas, pituitary size was increased and there was hyperprolactinemia, but PTTG levels followed different patterns. Patients with macroprolactinomas were divided in those in which dopaminergic therapy normalized or failed to normalize prolactin levels (responsive and resistant, respectively). When pituitary pttg mRNA level was analyzed in these macroprolactinomas, no differences were found. We next analyzed estrogen action at the pituitary by measuring pituitary estrogen receptor α levels. The D2R knockout female mice have low estrogen levels and in accordance, pituitary estrogen receptors were increased (P = 0.047). On the other hand, in senescent rats estrogen levels were slightly though not significantly higher, and estrogen receptors were similar between groups. The estrogen-treated rats had high pharmacological levels of the synthetic estrogen, and estrogen receptors were markedly lower than in controls (P < 0.0001). Finally, in patients with dopamine resistant or responsive prolactinomas no significant differences in estrogen receptor α levels were found. Therefore, pituitary PTTG was increased only if estrogen action was increased, which correlated with a decrease in pituitary estrogen receptor level. Conclusion We conclude that PTTG does not correlate with prolactin levels or tumor size in animal models of prolactinoma, and its pituitary content is not related to a decrease in dopaminergic control of the lactotrope, but may be influenced by estrogen action at the pituitary level. Therefore it is increased only in prolactinomas generated by estrogen treatment, and not in prolactinomas arising from deficient dopamine control, or in dopamine resistant compared with dopamine responsive human prolactinomas. These results are important in the search for reliable prognostic indicators for patients with pituitary adenomas which will make tumor-specific therapy possible, and help to elucidate the poorly understood phenomenon of pituitary tumorigenesis.

NF-κB activation mediates crystal translocation and interstitial inflammation in adenine overload nephropathy

Adenine overload promotes intratubular crystal precipitation and interstitial nephritis. We showed recently that these abnormalities are strongly attenuated in mice knockout for Toll-like receptors-2, -4, MyD88, ASC, or caspase-1. We now investigated whether NF-κB activation also plays a pathogenic role in this model. Adult male Munich-Wistar rats were distributed among three groups: C (n = 17), receiving standard chow; ADE (n = 17), given adenine in the chow at 0.7% for 1 wk and 0.5% for 2 wk; and ADE + pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC; n = 14), receiving adenine as above and the NF-κB inhibitor PDTC (120 mg•kg-1•day-1 in the drinking water). After 3 wk, widespread crystal deposition was seen in tubular lumina and in the renal interstitium, along with granuloma formation, collagen accumulation, intense tubulointerstitial proliferation, and increased interstitial expression of inflammatory mediators. Part of the crystals were segregated from tubular lumina by a newly formed cell layer and, at more advanced stages, appeared to be extruded to the interstitium. p65 nuclear translocation and IKK-α increased abundance indicated activation of the NF-κB system. PDTC treatment prevented p65 migration and normalized IKK-α, limited crystal shift to the interstitium, and strongly attenuated interstitial fibrosis/inflammation. These findings indicate that the complex inflammatory phenomena associated with this model depend, at least in part, on NF-κB activation, and suggest that the NF-κB system may become a therapeutic target in the treatment of chronic kidney disease.

Leptin signaling in Kiss1 neurons arises after pubertal development

The adipocyte-derived hormone leptin is required for normal pubertal maturation in mice and humans and, therefore, leptin has been recognized as a crucial metabolic cue linking energy stores and the onset of puberty. Several lines of evidence have suggested that leptin acts via kisspeptin expressing neurons of the arcuate nucleus to exert its effects. Using conditional knockout mice, we have previously demonstrated that deletion of leptin receptors (LepR) from kisspeptin cells cause no puberty or fertility deficits. However, developmental adaptations and system redundancies may have obscured the physiologic relevance of direct leptin signaling in kisspeptin neurons. To overcome these putative effects, we re-expressed endogenous LepR selectively in kisspeptin cells of mice otherwise null for LepR, using the Cre-loxP system. Kiss1-Cre LepR null mice showed no pubertal development and no improvement of the metabolic phenotype, remaining obese, diabetic and infertile. These mice displayed decreased numbers of neurons expressing Kiss1 gene, similar to prepubertal control mice, and an unexpected lack of re-expression of functional LepR. To further assess the temporal coexpression of Kiss1 and Lepr genes, we generated mice with the human renilla green fluorescent protein (hrGFP) driven by Kiss1 regulatory elements and crossed them with mice that express Cre recombinase from the Lepr locus and the R26-tdTomato reporter gene. No coexpression of Kiss1 and LepR was observed in prepubertal mice. Our findings unequivocally demonstrate that kisspeptin neurons are not the direct target of leptin in the onset of puberty. Leptin signaling in kisspeptin neurons arises only after completion of sexual maturation.

The role of Nox2-derived ROS in the development of cognitive impairment after sepsis

BACKGROUND: Sepsis- associated encephalopathy (SAE) is an early and common feature of severe infections. Oxidative stress is one of the mechanisms associated with the pathophysiology of SAE. The goal of this study was to investigate the involvement of NADPH oxidase in neuroinflammation and in the long-term cognitive impairment of sepsis survivors. METHODS: Sepsis was induced in WT and gp91phox knockout mice (gp91phox-/-) by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) to induce fecal peritonitis. We measured oxidative stress, Nox2 and Nox4 gene expression and neuroinflammation in the hippocampus at six hours, twenty-four hours and five days post-sepsis. Mice were also treated with apocynin, a NADPH oxidase inhibitor. Behavioral outcomes were evaluated 15 days after sepsis with the inhibitory avoidance test and the Morris water maze in control and apocynin-treated WT mice. RESULTS: Acute oxidative damage to the hippocampus was identified by increased 4-HNE expression in parallel with an increase in Nox2 gene expression after sepsis. Pharmacological inhibition of Nox2 with apocynin completely inhibited hippocampal oxidative stress in septic animals. Pharmacologic inhibition or the absence of Nox2 in gp91phox-/- mice prevented glial cell activation, one of the central mechanisms associated with SAE. Finally, treatment with apocynin and inhibition of hippocampal oxidative stress in the acute phase of sepsis prevented the development of long-term cognitive impairment. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that Nox2 is the main source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) involved in the oxidative damage to the hippocampus in SAE and that Nox2-derived ROS are determining factors for cognitive impairments after sepsis. These findings highlight the importance of Nox2-derived ROS as a central mechanism in the development of neuroinflammation associated with SAE.

Rag2-/-;gammac-/- immunodeficient mice, a new preclinical model to study antitumor approaches

Animal models have been relevant to study the molecular mechanisms of cancer and to develop new antitumor agents. Anyway, the huge divergence in mouse and human evolution made difficult the translation of the gained achievements in preclinical mouse based studies. The generation of clinically relevant murine models requires their humanization both concerning the creation of transgenic models and the generation of humanized mice in which to engraft a functional human immune system, and reproduce the physiological effects and molecular mechanisms of growth and metastasization of human tumors. In particular, the availability of genotypically stable immunodepressed mice able to accept tumor injection and allow human tumor growth and metastasization would be important to develop anti-tumor and anti-metastatic strategies. Recently, Rag2-/-;gammac-/- mice, double knockout for genes involved in lymphocyte differentiation, had been developed (CIEA, Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki, Japan). Studies of human sarcoma metastasization in Rag2-/-; gammac-/- mice (lacking B, T and NK functionality) revealed their high metastatic efficiency and allowed the expression of human metastatic phenotypes not detectable in the conventionally used nude murine model. In vitro analysis to investigate the molecular mechanisms involved in the specific pattern of human sarcomas metastasization revealed the importance of liver-produced growth and motility factors, in particular the insulin-like growth factors (IGFs). The involvement of this growth factor was then demonstrated in vivo through inhibition of IGF signalling pathway. Due to the high growth and metastatic propensity of tumor cells, Rag2-/-;gammac-/- mice were used as model to investigate the metastatic behavior of rhabdomyosarcoma cells engineered to improve the differentiation. It has been recently shown that this immunodeficient model can be reconstituted with a human immune system through the injection of human cord blood progenitor cells. The work illustrated in this thesis revealed that the injection of different human progenitor cells (CD34+ or CD133+) showed peculiar engraftment and differentiation abilities. Experiments of cell vaccination were performed to investigate the functionality of the engrafted human immune system and the induction of specific human immune responses. Results from such experiments will allow to collect informations about human immune responses activated during cell vaccination and to define the best reconstitution and experimental conditions to create a humanized model in which to study, in a preclinical setting, immunological antitumor strategies.

The immunogenicity of chemically derived zwitterionic polysaccharides

Bacterial capsular polysaccharides (PS) which naturally contain zwitterionic charge motifs (ZPS) possess specific immunostimulatory activity, leading to direct activation of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) through Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and of T cells in co-culture systems. When administered intraperitoneally, ZPS and bacteria expressing them are involved in the induction or regulation of T-cell dependent inflammatory processes such as intra-abdominal abscess formation. Moreover it has been published that ZPSs are processed to low molecular weight carbohydrates and presented to T cells through a pathway similar to that used for protein antigens. These findings were in contrast with the paradigm according to which polysaccharides are T-independent antigens unable to be presented in association with MHC class II molecules and unable to induce a protective immune response. For this reason in glycoconjugate vaccines polysaccharides often need to be conjugated to a carrier protein to induce protection. The aim of our work was to generate vaccine candidates with antigen and adjuvant properties in one molecule by the chemical introduction of a positive charge into naturally anionic PS from group B streptococcus (GBS). The resulting zwitterionic PS (ZPS) has the ability to activate human and mouse APCs, and in mixed co-cultures of monocytes and T cells, ZPS induce MHC II-dependent T-cell proliferation and up-regulation of activation markers. TLR2 transfectants show reporter gene transcription upon incubation with ZPS and these stimulatory qualities can be blocked by anti-TLR2 mAbs or by the destruction of the zwitterionic motif. However, in vivo, ZPS used alone as vaccine antigen failed to induce protection against GBS challenge, a result which does not confirm the above mentioned postulate that ZPS are T-cell dependent Ags by virtue of their charge motif. Thus to make ZPS visible to the immune system we have conjugated ZPS with a carrier protein. ZPS-glycoconjugates induce higher T cell and Ab responses to carrier and PS, respectively, compared to control PS-glycoconjugates made with the native polysaccharide form. Moreover, protection of mothers or neonate offspring from lethal GBS challenge is better when mothers are immunized with ZPS-conjugates compared to immunization with PS-conjugates. In TLR2 knockout mice, ZPS-conjugates lose both their increased immunogenicity and protective effect after vaccination. When ZPS are co-administered as adjuvants with unconjugated tetanus toxoid (TT), they have the ability to increase the TT-specific antibody titer. In conclusion, glycoconjugates containing ZPS are potent vaccines. They target Ag to TLR2-expressing APCs and activate these APCs, leading to better T cell priming and ultimately to higher protective Ab titers. Thus, rational chemical design can generate potent novel PS-adjuvants with wide application, including glycoconjugates and co-administration with unrelated protein Ags.

Untersuchungen zur Beteiligung der Preseniline an den molekularen Mechanismen der Amyloid-ß Entstehung

ZusammenfassungMorbus Alzheimer ist eine progressive, neurodegenerative Erkrankung, die weltweit die häufigste Form der Demenz darstellt und im mittleren bis späten Lebensabschnitt auftritt. Die neuropathologischen Merkmale beinhalten das Auftreten von extrazellulären Ablagerungen aus fibrillogenem Aß42 Peptiden in senilen Plaques und intraneuronalen Akkumulationen von hyperphosphoryliertem Tau in sogenannten neurofibrillären Bündeln. Obwohl die meisten Alzheimer Fälle sporadisch und Alters-assoziiert auftreten, gibt es eine autosomal dominant vererbte Form (FAD; Familial Alzheimer Disease), die schon in einem frühen Lebensabschnitt (ab 28 Jahren) ausbrechen kann. Diese aggressive Alzheimer Form wird durch Mutationen im Amyloid-Precursor-Protein-Gen (APP) oder den Presenilin-Genen (PS-1 und PS-2) ausgelöst. Die Presenilin (PS) Proteine sind entscheidend an der Entstehung von Aß beteiligt. So erhöhen FAD-assoziierte Mutationen in PS-1 und PS-2 die Bildung von Aß42. Außerdem verhindern sowohl homozygote PS-1 Null-Mutationen (PS-1-/-) in transgenen Mäusen, als auch dominant negative PS-1 Mutationen in Kulturzellen die Ab Bildung. Diese Belege sprechen für die zur Zeit favorisierte Amyloid Hypothese, in der die toxische Wirkung des Aß-Peptides in der Entstehung der Alzheimer Erkrankung eine zentrale Rolle einnimmt. Die y-Sekretase ist eine Protease, deren Aktivität für die Entstehung von Ab aus dem Vorläuferprotein APP essentiell ist. Damit bildet sie einen möglichen Ansatzpunkt, um grundlegend in den Prozeß der Ab Bildung einzugreifen. Die y-Sekretase ist allerdings noch nicht identifiziert oder kloniert. Es gibt Hinweise, daß die Preseniline y-Sekretase Aktivität besitzen könnten. Diese Theorie ist bis heute jedoch nicht eindeutig belegt. In dieser Arbeit sollten die molekularen Mechanismen der Ab Entstehung und insbesondere die Beteiligung der Preseniline an diesem Prozeß untersucht werden. Dazu wurde zunächst die subzelluläre Verteilung der endogenen Preseniline analysiert. Es konnte erstmalig ein Unterschied in der subzellulären Verteilung zwischen PS-1 und PS-2 festgestellt werden. PS-1 war vorwiegend im ER lokalisiert, wogegen PS-2 stark im Golgi-Apparat angereichert war. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde nach möglichen Interaktionen der Preseniline mit C-terminalen APP Fragmenten gesucht, die die Substrate der y-Sekretase darstellen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß die Preseniline mit einem 21 kDa großen C-terminalen APP Fragment interagieren. Dabei band die Mutante-Form der Preseniline mehr C-terminales APP Fragment als die Wildtyp-Form. Weiterhin wurde ein zellfreies System zur indirekten Bestimmung der y-Sekretase Aktivität etabliert. Mit Hilfe dieses Systems wird es möglich, Inhibitoren der y-Sekretase zu identifizieren. Die Spezifität des zellfreien Testsystems konnte dadurch deutlich gemacht werden, daß das PS-1, das schon in Zellkultur als essentielle Proteinkomponente zur Entstehung von Aß beschrieben wurde, auch in diesem zellfreien y-Sekretase System notwendig war. Allgemeine Proteaseinhibitoren, die alle bekannten Proteasemechanismen abdeckten, zeigten keinen Einfluß auf die de novo Bildung von Aß. Es konnte festgestellt werden, daß neben der y-Sekretase als Aß produzierende Protease auch Aß abbauende Proteasen vorlagen. Das pH-Optimum der y-Sekretase wurde im neutralen Bereich festgestellt. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, daß die y-Sekretase eine transmembrane oder zumindest membranassoziierte Protease ist, die keine cytosolischen Komponenten benötigt.

DNA-Doppelstrangbrüche als zentrales Ereignis alkylierungsinduzierter Zytotoxizität

DNA-Doppelstrangbrüche als zentrales Ereignis alkylierungsinduzierter Zytotoxizität Die vorliegende Arbeit befaßt sich mit der Entstehung von DNA-Doppelstrangbrüchen durch gentoxische Agenzien sowie den zytotoxischen Auswirkungen, die DNA-Doppelstrangbrüche für die Säuger-Zelle haben. Im ersten Teil der Arbeit wurden die molekularen Mechanismen untersucht, die am O6-Methylguanin (O6-MeG)-DNA-Schaden, hervorgerufen durch alkylierende Agenzien, ablaufen. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, das O6-Methylguanin DNA-Methyltransferase (MGMT) O6-MeG/C und O6-MeG/T in vitro mit gleicher Effizienz repariert und daß die Reparatur von O6-MeG nach dem ersten Zellzyklus protektive Auswirkung auf das zelluläre Überleben hat. Im zweiten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit stand die Induktion von DNA-Doppelstrangbrüchen durch gentoxische Agenzien in Mausfibroblasten und CHO-Zellen im Mittelpunkt. Mit Hilfe der Einzelzellgelelektrophorese (SCGE, Comet Assay) wurde gezeigt, daß alkylierende Substanzen und die durch Elektroporation in Zellen hineingebrachten Restriktionsenzyme PvuII und EcoRI DNA-Doppelstrangbrüche zu induzieren vermögen. Die Induktion und Reparatur von DNA-Doppelstrangbrüchen nach Elektroporation von PvuII war vom p53-Status der Zellen abhängig, da p53-defiziente Zellen im Gegensatz zu p53-profizienten Zellen höhere DNA-Doppelstrangbruchraten über einen längeren Zeitraum aufwiesen. Im dritten Teil wurden die physiologischen Auswirkungen einer Behandlung von Zellen mit Induktoren von DNA-Doppelstrangbrüchen untersucht. Es wurde gezeigt, daß Alkylanzien in Abhängigkeit vom Vorhandensein von MGMT Apoptose induzieren. Mit PvuII elektroporierte p53-knockout Mausfibroblasten zeigten infolgedessen und im Gegensatz zu p53-wildtyp Zellen hohe Apoptoseraten. Die Induktion der Apoptose nach Behandlung mit PvuII wie auch nach g-Bestrahlung ging einher mit einem Abfall der Proteinmenge des antiapoptotischen Bcl-2. Zusammengenommen weisen die Versuchsergebnisse dieser Arbeit darauf hin, daß nach Behandlung von Zellen mit O6-MeG-generierenden Agenzien wie auch nach g-Bestrahlung DNA-Doppelstrangbrüche das ultimative Signal darstellen können.

Genetische Analyse des Somatostatin-Systems

Somatostatin ist ein Molekül mit multifunktinonellem Charakter, dem Neurotransmitter-, Neuromodulator- und (Neuro)-Hormoneigenschaften zugeschrieben werden. Gemäß seiner ubiquitären Verteilung in Geweben beeinflusst es Stoffwechsel- und Entwicklungsprozesse, bis hin zu Lern-und Gedächtnisleistungen. Diese Wirkungen resultieren aus dem lokalen und zeitlichen Zusammenspiel eines Liganden und fünf G-Protein gekoppelter Rezeptoren (SSTR1-5). Zur Charakterisierung der biologischen Bedeutung des Somatostatin-Systems im Gesamtorganismus wurde eine Mutationsanalyse einzelner Systemkomponenten durchgeführt. Sie umfaßte die Inaktivierung der Gene für das Somatostatin-Präpropeptid und die der Rezeptoren SSTR3 und SSTR4 durch Gene Targeting. Die entsprechenden Ausfallmutationen belegen: Weder die Rezeptoren 3 und 4, noch Somatostatin sind für das Überleben des Organismus unter Standardhaltungsbedingungen notwendig. Die entsprechenden Mauslinien zeigen keine unmittelbar auffälligen Einschränkungen ihrer Biologie. Die Somatostatin-Nullmaus wurde zum Hauptgegenstand einer detaillierten Untersuchung aufgrund der übergeordneten Position des Liganden in der Signalkaskade und verfügbaren Hinweisen zu seiner Funktion. Folgende Schlußfolgerungen konnten nach eingehender Analyse gezogen werden: Der Ausfall des Somatostatin-Gens hat erhöhte Plasmakonzentrationen an Wachstumshormon (GH) zur Konsequenz. Dies steht im Einklang mit der Rolle Somatostatins als hemmender Faktor der Wachstumshormon-Freisetzung, die in der Mutante aufgehoben ist. Durch die Somatostatin-Nullmaus wurde zudem deutlich: Somatostatin interagiert als wesentliches Bindeglied zwischen der Wachstums- und Streßachse. Permanent erhöhte Corticosteron-Werte in den Mutanten implizieren einen negativen tonischen Einfluß für die Sekretion von Glukocorticoiden in vivo. Damit zeigt die Knockout-Maus, daß Somatostatin normalerweise als ein entscheidendes inhibierendes Kontrollelement der Steroidfreisetzung fungiert. Verhaltensversuche offenbarten ein Defizit im motorischen Lernen. Somatostatin-Nullmäuse bleiben im Lernparadigma “Rotierender Stabtest” hinter ihren Artgenossen zurück ohne aber generell in Motorik oder Koordination eingeschränkt zu sein. Diese motorischen Lernvorgänge sind von einem funktionierenden Kleinhirn abhängig. Da Somatostatin und seine Rezeptoren kaum im adulten, wohl aber im sich entwickelnden Kleinhirn auftreten, belegt dieses Ergebnis die Funktion transient in der Entwicklung exprimierter Neuropeptide – eine lang bestehende, aber bislang experimentell nicht nachgewiesene Hypothese. Die Überprüfung weiterer physiologischer Parameter und Verhaltenskategorien unter Standard-Laborbedingunggen ergab keine sichtbaren Abweichungen im Vergleich zu Wildtyp-Mäusen. Damit steht nun ein Tiermodell zur weiterführenden Analyse für die Somatostatin-Forschung bereit: In endokrinologischen, elektrophysiologischen und verhaltens-biologischen Experimenten ist nun eine unmittelbare Korrelation selektiv mit dem Somatostatin-Peptid bzw. mit den Rezeptoren 3 und 4 aber auch in Kombination der Ausfallmutationen nach entsprechenden Kreuzungen möglich.

Sleep-related changes in blood pressure in hypocretin-deficient narcoleptic mice

Objectives. Blood pressure (BP) physiologically has higher and lower values during the active and rest period, respectively. Subjects failing to show the appropriate BP decrease (10-20%) on passing form diurnal activity to nocturnal rest and sleep have increased risk of target organ damage at the cardiac, vascular and cerebrovascular levels. Hypocretin (HCRT) releasing neurons, mainly located in the lateral hypothalamus, project widely to the central nervous system. Thus HCRT neurons are involved in several autonomic functions, including BP regulation. HCRT neurons also play a key role in wake-sleep cycle regulation, the lack of which becomes evident in HCRT-deficient narcoleptic patients. I investigated whether chronic lack of HCRT signaling alters BP during sleep in mouse models of narcolepsy. Methods. The main study was performed on HCRT-ataxin3 transgenic mice (TG) with selective post-natal ablation of HCRT neurons, HCRT gene knockout mice (KO) with preserved HCRT neurons, and Wild-Type control mice (WT) with identical genetic background. Experiments where replicated on TG and WT mice with hybrid genetic background (hTG and hWT, respectively). Mice were implanted with a telemetric pressure transducer (TA11PA-C10, DSI) and electrodes for discriminating wakefulness (W), rapid-eye-movement sleep (REMS) and non-REMS (NREMS). Signals were recorded for 3 days. Mean BP values were computed in each wake-sleep state and analyzed by ANOVA and t-test with significance at p<0.05. Results. The decrease in BP between either NREMS or REMS and W was significantly blunted in TG and KO with respect to WT as well as in hTG with respect to hWT. Conclusions. Independently from the genetic background, chronic HCRT deficiency leads to a decreased BP difference between W and sleep potentially adverse in narcoleptic subjects. These data suggest that HCRT play an important role in the sleep-dependent cardiovascular control.

Endogene DNA-Schädigung als Ursache genetischer Instabilität

Zusammenfassung Diese Arbeit beschreibt Untersuchungen über die zellulären Mechanismen, die zur Bildung dieser DNA-Schäden führen, sowie über die biologischen Auswirkungen dieser Schäden. Die Untersuchungen zu Uracil in der DNA wurden in ung-knockout-MEFs und Mäusen durchgeführt, die es erlauben, die Konsequenzen eines Ausfalls der wichtigsten Reparaturglykosylase für Uracil zu beleuchten. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine deutliche Akkumulation von Uracil in den ung-/--Mausfibroblasten im Vergleich zum Wildtyp. In frisch isolierten Leber- und Milzzellen der Mäuse konnte dieser genotypspezifische Unterschied, wenn auch weniger ausgeprägt, ebenso beobachtet werden, nicht jedoch in reifen Spermien. Dieser gewebespezifische Unterschied und die quantitativ stärker ausgeprägte Akkumulation in ung-/--Mausfibroblasten im Vergleich zu den Mäusegeweben gab Anlass zur Vermutung, dass die Proliferation der Zellen für den Haupteintrag an Uracil in die DNA verantwortlich ist. Erstmals konnte in Versuche mit konfluenten (nicht mehr proliferierenden) ung-/--Mausfibroblasten gezeigt werden, dass nicht die spontane hydrolytische Desaminierung von Cytosin, sondern der Fehleinbau von dUMP während der DNA-Replikation die Hauptquelle für Uracil in der DNA von Säugerzellen darstellt. Da der Uracilmetabolismus ein wichtiges Target in der Chemotherapie ist, lag es nahe, das zur Verfügung stehende ung-knockout-Modell der MEFs zur Untersuchung mit Fluorpyrimidinen, die als Zytostatika verwendet werden, einzusetzen. Da bisher die Ursachen der beobachteten Apoptose der Tumorzellen und aller anderen metabolisch hochaktiven Zellen eines behandelten Organismus noch nicht vollständig verstanden ist, wurden diese Zellen mit verschiedenen Fluorpyrimidinen behandelt, die als Thymidylatsynthasehemmer die de novo Synthese von Thymidin unterbinden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass ung-/- Mausfibroblasten, im Gegensatz zu ung+/+ Mausfibroblasten, verstärkt Uracil in der DNA akkumulieren. Obwohl die ung+/+ Mausfibroblasten keine erhöhten Uracil-Spiegel in der DNA aufwiesen, zeigten sie bei Inkubation mit einem der beiden Thymidylatsynthasehemmern, 5-Fluoruracil (5-FU), die gleiche Sensitivität in einem nachfolgenden Proliferationsversuch wie die ung-/- Mausfibroblasten. Dies lässt darauf schließen, dass weder Reparatur noch Einbau von Uracil in die DNA für die beobachtete Toxizität dieser Zytostatika notwendig sind. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung des DNA-schädigenden Potenzials endogener ROS, die aus dem Fremdstoffmetabolismus stammen. Dazu wurden V79-Zellen verwendet, die mit dem humanen Enzym Cytochrom 2E1 (CYP2E1) transfiziert wurden (V79 CYP2E1) sowie Zellen, die ebenfalls durch Transfektion das humane Enzym Cytochromreduktase (auch Oxidoreduktase genannt) überexprimieren (V79 hOR). Beide Enzyme sind zusammen an der Hydroxylierung von Fremdstoffen beteiligt, bei der die Reduktion von molekularem Sauerstoff durch Übertragung von zwei Elektronen notwendig ist. Wird anstatt zweier Elektronen in Folge nur eines auf den Sauerstoff übertragen, so führt dieser von der Substratoxygenierung enkoppelte Vorgang zur Bildung von Superoxid. Daher galt es zu klären, ob das so erzeugte Superoxid und daraus gebildete ROS in der Lage sind, die DNA zu schädigen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Überexpression von CYP2E1 nicht zu einem erhöhten basalen Gleichgewichtsspiegel oxidativer DNA-Schäden führt und die Metabolisierung von Ethanol durch dieses Enzym ebenfalls keine DNA-Modifikationen verursacht. Die Überexpression der Cytochromreduktase hingegen führte gegenüber dem Wildtyp zu einem erhöhten basalen Gleichgewichtsspiegel oxidativer Basenmodifikationen nach Depletion von Glutathion, einem wichtigen zellulären Antioxidans. Im Mikrokerntest, der gentoxische Ereignisse wie Chromosomenbrüche in Zellen aufzeigt, zeigte sich schon ohne Glutathion-Depletion eine doppelt so hohe Mikrokernrate im Vergleich zum Wildtyp. In weiteren Versuchen wurden die V79-hOR-Zellen mit dem chinoiden Redoxcycler Durochinon inkubiert, um zu untersuchen, ob das vermutlich durch die Reduktase vermittelte Redoxcycling über Generierung von ROS in der Lage ist, einen oxidativen DNA-Schaden und Toxizität zu verursachen. Hier zeigte sich, dass die Überexpression der Reduktase Voraussetzung für Toxizität und den beobachteten DNA-Schaden ist. Die Wildtyp-Zellen zeigten weder einen DNA-Schaden noch Zytotoxizität, auch eine zusätzliche Glutathion-Depletion änderte nichts an dem Befund. Die V79-hOR-Zellen hingegen reagierten auf die Inkubation mit Durochinon mit einer konzentrationsabhängigen Zunahme der Einzelstrangbrüche und oxidativen Basenmodifikationen, wobei sich der DNA-Schaden durch vorherige Glutathion-Depletion verdoppeln ließ.

The role of Interleukin-12 in liver inflammation

Chronic liver inflammation during viral hepatitis is a major health problem worldwide. The role of proinflammatory cytokines, like IL-12, in breaking hepatic immune tolerance, and inducing acute liver inflammation and virus clearance is not clear. Nor is clear its role in uncontrolled severe inflammatory response, leading to fulminant hepatitis and hepatic failure. This work, focused in the study of the role of endogenous produced IL-12 in inducing hepatic inflammatory responses, demonstrates: In vitro, using adenovirus coding for IL-12, that hepatocytes stimulate CD4+ T cells in a tolerogenic manner, and that endogenous IL-12 is able to switch the immune response into Th1; and in vivo, that endogenous IL-12 induces hepatocyte damage and virus elimination in mice infected with adenovirus. In addition, and in order to study in vivo the relevance of IL-12 in acute inflammation, conditional IL-12 transgenic mice expressing IL-12 in the liver after cre-recombinase mediated induction were generated. For this purpose, an IL-12 fusion protein was created, which demonstrated high levels of bioactivity. Induction of IL-12 expression during embryonic development was achieved by crossbreeding with Act-Cre transgenic mice; induction of IL-12 expression in adult mice was achieved by a plasmid coding for the cre-recombinase. This study demonstrates that after induction, IL-12 is expressed in the liver of the transgenic mice. It also demonstrates that hepatic expression of IL-12 induces splenomegaly and liver inflammation, characterized by large infiltrations in portal tracts and veins, associated with hepatic damage, necrosis areas and lethality. Furthermore, constitutive hepatic IL-12 expression does not lead to abortion, but to total lethality, short after delivery. In conclusion, in this study, a transgenic mouse model has been generated, in which the expression of active IL-12 in the liver can be induced at any time; this model will be very helpful for studying hepatic pathologies. This study has also demonstrated that hepatic produced IL-12 is able of breaking liver tolerance inducing inflammation, virus elimination, severe hepatocyte damage, and lethality. These findings suggest IL-12 as a key cytokine in acute liver inflammation and fulminant hepatic failure. 5.1 Future studies Once the importance of IL-12 in inducing hepatic inflammation and virus elimination was demonstrated in this study, understanding the mechanisms of the IL-12 induced liver damage, and more important, how to avoid it will be the main focus in the future. It is very important to achieve hepatic inflammation for a more effective and faster viral elimination, but avoiding the toxicity of IL-12, which leads to massive liver injury and lethality is obviously necessary to allow IL-12 as therapy. For that purpose, future studies will be mainly base on three different points: 1. The determination of different cell populations present in the hepatic infiltration, which of them are responsible for liver injury, and as well their state of activation. 2. The measure of other pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which can play a role in IL-12-induced liver inflammation and hepatocyte damage. For these purposes, specific blocking antibodies (anti TNF-alpha, anti IL-12, anti IFN-g) will be used. The study with different transgenic mice: TNF-alpha Receptor knockout, TGF-b, will also help in determining the role of those cytokines during IL-12-induced liver damage and lethality. 3. The establishing of liver pathology models (viral infection, tumours, auto-antigens) in mice. Induction of IL-12 at any time of the pathology development will help in clarifying the role of IL-12 in those models. Finally, the transgenic mice expressing IL-23 in the liver will be generated.