Characteristics of light and dark alternations in Owen Ridge sediments (Appendix)

Clay mineral relative abundances in approximately 450 samples from cores recovered during ODP Leg 117 in the Arabian Sea have been used to examine the paleoclimatic, paleoenvironmental, and tectonic histories of the Indus Fan, Owen Ridge, Oman margin, and adjacent continental source regions. Geographic variations in the relative abundances of minerals and correlations with depositional processes support previous interpretations that smectite has been supplied from weathering of the Deccan Traps; illite and chlorite have been supplied either from the Himalayas via marine transport or from the Iran-Makran region by winds; and palygorskite has been supplied from the Arabian peninsula and Somalia by winds. Pleistocene sediments of the Indus Fan record two modes of deposition: turbidites supplied from the Indus drainage and dominated by illite and chlorite, and pelagic carbonates containing smectites and wind-transported palygorskite. Local and regional causes for shifts between these depositional processes cannot be demonstrated conclusively with the data available, but sea-level fluctuations probably exerted a significant control on the rate of turbidite influx. Lower Miocene sediments on the Owen Ridge are also turbidites supplied by the Indus drainage; in the middle Miocene, a shift to pelagic carbonates records the uplift of the Owen Ridge, and is accompanied by the increased relative importance of wind-transported palygorskite. Associations of palygorskite and biosiliceous components in middle to upper Miocene sediments are interpreted to record vigorous monsoonal circulation and accompanying upwelling-produced biological productivity. Mineralogic and geochemical data indicate that light/dark color alternations in upper Miocene sediments on the Owen Ridge record climatic fluctuations, but the climatic significance of similar alternations in Pliocene-Pleistocene sediments is unclear. Palygorskite is the dominant clay on the Oman margin, reflecting proximity to its source areas. On the Oman margin, clay mineral relative abundances are most variable at structurally complex sites, indicating that local depositional settings have been influenced by their tectonic histories since the Miocene.

Heat flow from the Southeast Indian Ridge flanks between 80°E and 140°E: Data review and analysis - art. no. B01101

We analyze available heat flow data from the flanks of the Southeast Indian Ridge adjacent to or within the Australian-Antarctic Discordance (AAD), an area with patchy sediment cover and highly fractured seafloor as dissected by ridge- and fracture-parallel faults. The data set includes 23 new data points collected along a 14-Ma old isochron and 19 existing measurements from the 20- to 24-Ma old crust. Most sites of measurements exhibit low heat flux (from 2 to 50 mW m(-2)) with near-linear temperature-depth profiles except at a few sites, where recent bottom water temperature change may have caused nonlinearity toward the sediment surface. Because the igneous basement is expected to outcrop a short distance away from any measurement site, we hypothesize that horizontally channelized water circulation within the uppermost crust is the primary process for the widespread low heat flow values. The process may be further influenced by vertical fluid flow along numerous fault zones that crisscross the AAD seafloor. Systematic measurements along and across the fault zones of interest as well as seismic profiling for sediment distribution are required to confirm this possible, suspected effect.

Thermal regime of the Southeast Indian Ridge between 88°E and 140°E: Remarks on the subsidence of the ridge flanks

The flanks of the Southeast Indian Ridge are characterized by anomalously low subsidence rates for the 0-25 Ma period: less than 300 m Ma(-1/2) between 101 degrees E and 120 degrees E and less than 260 m Ma(-1/2) within the Australian-Antarctic Discordance (AAD), between 120 degrees E and 128 degrees E. The expected along-axis variation in mantle temperature (similar to 50 degrees C) is too small to explain this observation, even when the temperature dependence of the mantle physical properties is accounted for. We successively analyze the effect on subsidence of different factors, such as variations in crustal thickness; the dynamic contribution of an old, detached slab supposedly present within the mantle below the AAD; and depletion in phi(m), a parameter here defined as the "ubiquitously distributed melt fraction" within the asthenosphere. These effects may all contribute to the observed, anomalously low subsidence rate of the ridge flanks, with the most significant contribution being probably related to the depletion in phi(m). However, these effects have a deep-seated origin that cannot explain the abruptness of the transition across the fracture zones that delineate the boundaries of the AAD, near 120 degrees E and near 128 degrees E, respectively.

Study and investigation of the various reactions of Mazandaran Province shoreline against wind waves

Determining of beach states and study of manner sediment transmission in beach profile, involves the evaluating the actions of hydrodynamic forces dominated over the beaches, in this research through determining the beach states by the help of Hanson and short method, different reactions of Mazandaran’s shoreline against wind waves was studied and investigated. For this reason, First, the kind of hydrodynamic forces dominated over the beaches of this province was studied and beaches of the this province was distinguished as wave–dominated beaches, afterwards eight stations are chosen throughout the shoreline and the waves qualities and the sediments regarding to different depth was evaluated in these stations by using software and laboratory actions. In this way the parameter of dimensionless fall velocity each station was calculated and the beach states and their changes according to time was studied. Finally, the gained information is located in the software area of Arc GIS, and the waves dynamics and the way of erosion and accretion was evaluated in each station. In this research by study of air photographs during a thirty years period we found that was no remarkable changes at shoreline in western and central parts and each type of change depends upon the delta, while eastern part of coast at the location of breakwaters in neighbouring of Farahabad Station, accretion features is quiet evident. In the main results of this research, it became obvious that the beach state in the stations Neca, Farahabad, Larim, Naftchal, Mazandaran university, Babolsar, Noor is dissipative and the beach in Nashtarood station is in intermediate (ridge and runnel) state to the extend that in the dissipation beaches from east to west, the degree of dissipation of the beaches is decreased continuously.

Hydrothermal activity along the slow-spreading Lucky Strike ridge segment (Mid-Atlantic Ridge): Distribution, heatflux, and geological controls

We have reviewed available visual information from the seafloor, and recently acquired microbathymetry for several traverses across the Lucky Strike segment, to evaluate the distribution of hydrothermal activity. We have identified a new on-axis site with diffuse flow, Ewan, and an active vent structure ∼1.2 km from the axis, Capelinhos. These sites are minor relative to the Main field, and our total heatflux estimate for all active sites (200–1200 MW) is only slightly higher than previously published estimates. We also identify fossil sites W of the main Lucky Strike field. A circular feature ∼200 m in diameter located on the flanks of a rifted off-axis central volcano is likely a large and inactive hydrothermal edifice, named Grunnus. We find no indicator of focused hydrothermal activity elsewhere along the segment, suggesting that the enhanced melt supply and the associated melt lenses, required to form central volcanoes, also sustain hydrothermal circulation to form and maintain large and long-lived hydrothermal fields. Hydrothermal discharge to the seafloor occurs along fault traces, suggesting focusing of hydrothermal circulation in the shallow crust along permeable fault zones.

A joint electromagnetic and seismic study of an active pockmark within the hydrate stability field at the Vestnesa Ridge, West Svalbard margin

We acquired coincident marine controlled-source electromagnetic (CSEM), high-resolution seismic reflection and ocean-bottom seismometer (OBS) data over an active pockmark in the crest of the southern part of the Vestnesa Ridge, to estimate fluid composition within an underlying fluid-migration chimney. Synthetic model studies suggest resistivity obtained from CSEM data can resolve gas or hydrate saturation greater than 5% within the chimney. Acoustic chimneys imaged by seismic reflection data beneath the pockmark and on the ridge flanks, were found to be associated with high-resistivity anomalies (+2-4 m). High-velocity anomalies (+0.3 km/s), within the gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) and low-velocity anomalies (-0.2 km/s) underlying the GHSZ, were also observed. Joint analysis of the resistivity and velocity anomaly indicates pore saturation of up to 52% hydrate with 28% free gas, or up to 73% hydrate with 4% free gas, within the chimney beneath the pockmark assuming a non-uniform and uniform fluid distribution respectively. Similarly, we estimate up to 30% hydrate with 4% free gas or 30% hydrate with 2% free gas within the pore space of the GHSZ outside the central chimney assuming a non-uniform and uniform fluid distribution respectively. High levels of free-gas saturation in the top part of the chimney are consistent with episodic gas venting from the pockmark.

Biogeographical distribution of Rimicaris exoculata resident gut epibiont communities along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge hydrothermal vent sites

Rimicaris exoculata is a deep-sea hydrothermal vent shrimp which enlarged gill chamber houses a complex trophic epibiotic community. Its gut harbours an autochthonous and distinct microbial community. This species dominates hydrothermal ecosystems megafauna along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, regardless of contrasted geochemical conditions prevailing in them. Here, the resident gut epibiont community at four contrasted hydrothermal vent sites (Rainbow/TAG/Logatchev/Ashadze) was analysed and compiled with previous data to evaluate the possible influence of site location, using 16S rRNA surveys and microscopic observations (TEM, SEM and FISH analyses). Filamentous epibionts inserted between the epithelial cells microvilli were observed on all examined samples. Results confirmed resident gut community affiliation to Deferribacteres, Mollicutes, Epsilonproteobacteria and to a lesser extent Gammaproteobacteria lineages. Still a single Deferribacteres phylotype was retrieved at all sites. Four Mollicutes-related OTUs were distinguished, one being only identified on Rainbow specimens. The topology of ribotypes median-joining networks illustrated a community diversification possibly following demographic expansions, suggesting a more ancient evolutionary history and/or a larger effective population size at Rainbow. Finally, the gill chamber community distribution was also analysed through ribotypes networks based on sequences from R. exoculata collected at Rainbow/Snake Pit/TAG/Logatchev/Ashadze sites. Results allow refining hypotheses on the epibiont role and transmission pathways.

Rapid hydrothermal cooling above the axial melt lens at fast-spreading mid-ocean ridge

Axial melt lenses sandwiched between the lower oceanic crust and the sheeted dike sequences at fast-spreading mid-ocean ridges are assumed to be the major magma source of oceanic crust accretion. According to the widely discussed "gabbro glacier'' model, the formation of the lower oceanic crust requires efficient cooling of the axial melt lens, leading to partial crystallization and crystal-melt mush subsiding down to lower crust. These processes are believed to be controlled by periodical magma replenishment and hydrothermal circulation above the melt lens. Here we quantify the cooling rate above melt lens using chemical zoning of plagioclase from hornfelsic recrystallized sheeted dikes drilled from the East Pacific at the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Hole 1256D. Weestimate the cooling rate using a forward modelling approach based on CaAl-NaSi interdiffusion in plagioclase. The results show that cooling from the peak thermal overprint at 1000-10506 degrees C to 6006 degrees C are yielded within about 10-30 years as a result of hydrothermal circulation above melt lens during magma starvation. The estimated rapid hydrothermal cooling explains how the effective heat extraction from melt lens is achieved at fast-spreading mid-ocean ridges.

Peripheral communities of the Eastern Lau Spreading Center and Valu Fa Ridge: community composition, temporal change and comparison to near-vent communities

Western Pacific hydrothermal vents will soon be subjected to deep-sea mining and peripheral sites are considered the most practical targets. The limited information on community dynamics and temporal change in these communities makes it difficult to anticipate the impact of mining activities and recovery trajectories. We studied community composition of peripheral communities along a cline in hydrothermal chemistry on the Eastern Lau Spreading Center and Valu Fa Ridge (ELSC-VFR) and also studied patterns of temporal change. Peripheral communities located in the northern vent fields of the ELSC-VFR are significantly different from those in the southern vent fields. Higher abundances of zoanthids and anemones were found in northern peripheral sites and the symbiont-containing mussel Bathymodiolus brevior, brisingid seastars and polynoids were only present in the northern peripheral sites. By contrast, certain faunal groups were seen only in the southern peripheral sites, such as lollipop sponges, pycnogonids and ophiuroids. Taxonomic richness of the peripheral communities was similar to that of active vent communities, due to the presence of non-vent endemic species that balanced the absence of species found in areas of active venting. The communities present at waning active sites resemble those of peripheral sites, indicating that peripheral species can colonize previously active vent sites in addition to settling in the periphery of areas of venting. Growth and mortality were observed in a number of the normally slow-growing cladorhizid stick sponges, indicating that these animals may exhibit life history strategies in the vicinity of vents that differ from those previously recorded. A novel facultative association between polynoids and anemones is proposed based on their correlated distributions.

The Southeast Indian Ridge between 88°E and 118°E: Gravity anomalies and crustal accretion at intermediate spreading rates

Although slow spreading ridges characterized by a deep axial valley and fast spreading ridges characterized by an axial bathymetric high have been extensively studied, the transition between these two modes of axial morphology is not well understood. We conducted a geophysical-survey of the intermediate spreading rate Southeast Indian Ridge between 88 degrees E and 118 degrees E, a 2300-km-long section of the ridge located between the Amsterdam hot spot and the Australian-Antarctic Discordance where satellite gravity data suggest that the Southeast Indian Ridge (SEIR) undergoes a change from an axial high in the west to an axial valley in the east. A basic change in axial morphology is found near 103 degrees 30'E in the shipboard data; the axis to the west is marked by an axial high, while a valley is found to the east. Although a well-developed axial high, characteristic of the East Pacific Rise (EPR), is occasionally present, the more common observation is a rifted high that is lower and pervasively faulted, sometimes with significant (> 50 m throw) faults within a kilometer of the axis. A shallow axial valley (< 700 m deep) is observed from 104 degrees E to 114 degrees E with a sudden change to a deep (>1200 m deep) valley across a transform at 114 degrees E. The changes in axial morphology along the SEIR are accompanied by a 500 m increase in near-axis ridge flank depth from 2800 m near 88 degrees E to 3300 m near 114 degrees E and by a 50 mGal increase in the regional level of mantle Bouguer gravity anomalies over the same distance, The regional changes in depth and mantle Bouguer anomaly (MBA) gravity can be both explained by a 1.7-2.4 km change in crustal thickness or by a mantle temperature change of 50 degrees C-90 degrees C. In reality, melt supply (crustal thickness) and mantle temperature are linked, so that changes in both may occur simultaneously and these estimates serve as upper bounds. The along-axis MBA gradient is not uniform. Pronounced steps in the regional level of the MBA gravity occur at 103 degrees 30'E-104 degrees E and at 114 degrees E-116 degrees E and correspond to the changes in the nature of the axial morphology and in the amplitude of abyssal hill morphology suggesting that the different forms of morphology do not grade into each other but rather represent distinctly different forms of axial (s)tructure and tectonics with a sharp transition between them. The change from an axial high to an axial valley requires a threshold effect in which the strength of the lithosphere changes quickly. The presence or absence of a quasi-steady state magma chamber may provide such a mechanism. The different forms of axial morphology are also associated with different intrasegment MBA gravity patterns. Segments with an axial high have an MBA low located at a depth minimum near the center of the segment, At EPR-like segments, the MBA low is about 10 mGal with along-axis gradients of 0.15-0.25 mGal/km, similar to those observed at the EPR, Rifted highs have a shallower low and lower gradients suggesting an attenuated composite magma chamber and a reduced and perhaps episodic melt supply. Segments with a shallow axial valley have very flat along-axis MBA profiles with little correspondence between axial depth and axial MBA gravity.

The Southeast Indian Ridge between 88°E and 118°E: Variations in crustal accretion at constant spreading rate

The temperature of the mantle and the rate of melt production are parameters which play important roles in controlling the style of crustal accretion along mid-ocean ridges. To investigate the variability in crustal accretion that develops in response to variations in mantle temperature, we have conducted a geophysical investigation of the Southeast Indian Ridge (SEIR) between the Amsterdam hotspot and the Australian-Antarctic Discordance (88 degrees E-118 degrees E). The spreading center deepens by 2100 m from west to east within the study area. Despite a uniform, intermediate spreading rate (69-75 mm yr-l), the SEIR exhibits the range in axial morphology displayed by the East Pacific Rise and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) and usually associated with variations in spreading rate. The spreading center is characterized by an axial high west of 102 degrees 45'E, whereas an axial valley is prevalent east of this longitude. Both the deepening of the ridge axis and the general evolution of axial morphology from an axial high to a rift valley are not uniform. A region of intermediate morphology separates axial highs and MAR-like rift valleys. Local transitions in axial morphology occur in three areas along the ridge axis. The increase in axial depth toward the Australian-Antarctic Discordance may be explained by the thinning of the oceanic crust by similar to 4 km and the change in axial topography. The long-wavelength changes observed along the SEIR can be attributed to a gradient in mantle temperature between regions influenced by the Amsterdam and Kerguelen hot spots and the Australian-Antarctic Discordance. However, local processes, perhaps associated with an heterogeneous mantle or along-axis asthenospheric flow, may give rise to local transitions in axial topography and depth anomalies.

Intraplate versus ridge volcanism on the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge near 37°S -111°W

Exploration of the Foundation Volcanic Chain (33 degrees S-131 degrees W; 37 degrees S-111 degrees W) revealed the existence of different magmatic provinces with relation to their geological settings. (1) The Pacific-Antarctic Ridge (PAR) is made up of several en echelon segments where both glassy midocean ridge basalts (MORBs) with low incompatible elements (K2O<200 ppm, Zr<120 ppm and Ce <20 ppm) as well as andesites and dacites have erupted, (2) Oblique Ridges located up to 300 lan from the PAR axis are topped with seamounts made up essentially of transitional (T) and enriched (E) MORBs with intermediate incompatible elements (K2O=0.11-0.40 %, Zr=70-140 ppm and Ce=15-30 ppm), (3) the Foundation Seamounts (FS) consisting essentially of isolated volcanoes which have erupted alkalic lavas (alkali basalt, trachybasalt and trachyandesite) with high incompatible elements (K2O (0.50-1.1 %, Zr (>150 ppm) and Ce (>48 ppm)) at about 306-1300 km from the PAR axis, (4) The Old Pacific Seamounts built on a crust older than 23 m. y. located west of longitude 124 degrees W (> 1300 km from the PAR axis) consist of T and EMORB. On the PAR axis, extensive crystal fractionation (>65%) produced the silicic lavas. On the basis of Pacific plate reconstruction using a half spreading rate of about 50 mm/yr and integrating the observed compositional changes with respect to the structural settings, it is inferred that the last volcanic events giving rise to the FS took place at about 110 km from the PAR axis about 5 m. y. ago. The Oblique Ridges built between 5 m. y. and <1 m. y. are believed to represent ancient leaky transforms and/or large discontinuities between accreting ridge segments filled by volcanic cones during the interaction (mixing) of the enriched plume components of the FS with PAR depleted (MORB type) magmatism. The Old Pacific Seamounts built on ancient crust (>23 m. y.) with MORB volcanics comparable to those of the the Oblique Ridge-PAR provinces, could also have been formed by an interaction between the Foundation Seamount (dredge site 28) hotspot magmatism and that of an ancient accreting ridge magmatism precursor of the PAR.

Soil Carbon Dioxide and Methane Efflux From an Everglades Tree Island and Ridge Landscape

The influence water levels have on CO2 and CH4 efflux were investigated at the Loxahatchee Impoundment Landscape Assessment (LILA) research facility, located in Boynton Beach, FL, USA. Measurements of CO2 efflux were taken for 24 h periods four times for one year from study plots. Laboratory incubations of intact soil cores were sampled for CO2, CH4, and redox potential. Additionally, soil cores from wet and dry condition were incubated for determination of enzyme activity and macronutrient limitation on decomposition of organic matter from study soils. Water levels had a significant negative influence on CO2 efflux and redox, but did not significantly influence CH4 efflux. Study plots were significantly different in CH4 efflux and redox potential. Labile carbon was more limiting to potential CO2 and CH4 production than phosphorus, with the effect significantly greater from dry conditions soils. Enzyme activity results were variable with greater macronutrient responses from dry condition soils.

The 1998-2001 submarine lava balloon eruption at the Serreta Ridge (Azores archipelago): constraints from volcanic facies architecture, isotope geochemistry and magnetic data

The most recent submarine eruption observed offshore the Azores archipelago occurred between 1998-2001 along the submarine Serreta ridge (SSR), ~4-5 nautical miles WNW of Terceira Island. This submarine eruption delivered abundant basaltic lava balloons floating at the sea surface and significantly changed the bathymetry around the eruption area. Our work combines bathymetry, volcanic facies cartography, petrography, rock magnetism and geochemistry in order to (1) track the possible vent source at seabed, (2) better constrain the Azores magma source(s) sampled through the Serreta submarine volcanic event, and (3) interpret the data within the small-scale mantle source heterogeneity framework that has been demonstrated for the Azores archipelago. Lava balloons sampled at sea surface display a radiogenic signature, which is also correlated with relatively primitive (low) 4He/3He isotopic ratios. Conversely, SSR lavas are characterized by significantly lower radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr, 206Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb ratios than the lava balloons and the onshore lavas from the Terceira Island. SSR lavas are primitive, but incompatible trace-enriched. Apparent decoupling between the enriched incompatible trace element abundances and depleted radiogenic isotope ratios is best explained by binary mixing of a depleted MORB source and a HIMU­type component into magma batches that evolved by similar shallower processes in their travel to the surface. The collected data suggest that the freshest samples collected in the SSR may correspond to volcanic products of an unnoticed and more recent eruption than the 1998-2001 episode.