Control of transepithelial Na+ transport and Na-K-ATPase by oxytocin and aldosterone.

Short- and long-term effect of oxytocin on Na+ transport and Na-K-ATPase biosynthesis in the toad bladder, and the potential interaction of this hormone with aldosterone have been studied, leading to the following observations. An early Na+ transport response (oxytocin, 50 mU/ml) peaked at 10-15 min of hormone addition. At maximal stimulation a three- to fourfold increase in Na+ transport was observed, a sustained Na+ transport response (about two-fold control base line) was observed as long as the hormone was present in the medium and for up to 20 h of incubation. Pretreatment for 30 min with actinomycin D (2 micrograms/ml) did not inhibit the early response, but significantly impaired the sustained response, suggesting that de novo protein synthesis was required. The simultaneous addition of the two hormones led within 60 min to a marked potentiation of the action on Na+ transport. This synergism could be mimicked by exogenous cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Oxytocin alone (18 h exposure, 50 mU/ml) increased the relative rate of synthesis of both alpha and beta subunits of Na-K-ATPase (1.9- and 1.6-fold, respectively; P less than 0.05), whereas aldosterone (80 nM) increased the relative rate of synthesis of the same subunits (2.6- and 2.2-fold, respectively; P less than 0.02). Finally, in contrast to what was observed at the physiological level, the interaction of oxytocin and aldosterone did not lead to a similar potentiation at the biochemical level, i.e., induction of Na-K-ATPase biosynthesis (2.7- and 2.9-fold, for alpha and beta subunits, respectively; P less than 0.025).

ROLES OF ACID-SENSING ION CHANNELS (ASICS) IN PERIPHERAL NEUROPEPTIDE SECRETION AND PAIN

Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are non-voltage-gated sodium channels activated by an extracellular acidification. They are widely expressed in neurons of the central and peripheral nervous system. ASICs have a role in learning, the expression of fear, in neuronal death after cerebral ischemia, and in pain sensation. Tissue damage leads to the release of inflammatory mediators. There is a subpopulation of sensory neurons which are able to release the neuropeptides calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and substance P (SP). Neurogenic inflammation refers to the process whereby peripheral release of the neuropeptides CGRP and SP induces vasodilation and extravasation of plasma proteins, respectively. Our laboratory has previously shown that calcium-permeable homomeric ASIC1a channels are present in a majority of CGRP- or SP-expressing small diameter sensory neurons. In the first part of my thesis, we tested the hypothesis that a local acidification can produce an ASIC-mediated calcium-dependant neuropeptide secretion. We have first verified the co-expression of ASICs and CGRP/SP using immunochemistry and in-situ hybridization on dissociated rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. We found that most CGRP/SP-positive neurons also expressed ASIC1a and ASIC3 subunits. Calcium imaging experiments with Fura-2 dye showed that an extracellular acidification can induce an increase of intracellular Ca2+ concentration, which is essential for secretion. This increase of intracellular Ca2+ concentration is, at least in some cells, ASIC-dependent, as it can be prevented by amiloride, an ASIC antagonist, and by Psalmotoxin (PcTx1), a specific ASIC1a antagonist. We identified a sub-population of neurons whose acid-induced Ca2+ entry was completely abolished by amiloride, an amiloride-resistant population which does not express ASICs, but rather another acid-sensing channel, possibly transient receptor potential vanilloïde 1 (TRPV1), and a population expressing both H+-gated channel types. Voltage-gated calcium channels (Cavs) may also mediate Ca2+ entry. Co-application of the Cavs inhibitors (ω-conotoxin MVIIC, Mibefradil and Nifedipine) reduced the Ca2+ increase in neurons expressing ASICs during an acidification to pH 6. This indicates that ASICs can depolarise the neuron and activate Cavs. Homomeric ASIC1a are Ca2+-permeable and allow a direct entry of Ca2+ into the cell; other ASICs mediate an indirect entry of Ca2+ by inducing a membrane depolarisation that activates Cavs. We showed with a secretion assay that CGRP secretion can be induced by extracellular acidification in cultured rat DRG neurons. Amiloride and PcTx1 were not able to inhibit the secretion at acidic pH, but BCTC, a TRPV1 inhibitor was able to decrease the secretion induced by an extracellular acidification in our in vitro secretion assay. In conclusion, these results show that in DRG neurons a mild extracellular acidification can induce a calcium-dependent neuropeptide secretion. Even if our data show that ASICs can mediate an increase of intracellular Ca2+ concentration, this appears not to be sufficient to trigger neuropeptide secretion. TRPV1, a calcium channel whose activation induces a sustained current - in contrary of ASICs - played in our experimental conditions a predominant role in neurosecretion. In the second part of my thesis, we focused on the role of ASICs in neuropathic pain. We used the spared nerve injury (SNI) model which consists in a nerve injury that induces symptoms of neuropathic pain such as mechanical allodynia. We have previously shown that the SNI model modifies ASIC currents in dissociated rat DRG neurons. We hypothesized that ASICs could play a role in the development of mechanical allodynia. The SNI model was performed on ASIC1a, -2, and -3 knock-out mice and wild type littermates. We measured mechanical allodynia on these mice with calibrated von Frey filaments. There were no differences between the wild-type and the ASIC1, or ASIC2 knockout mice. ASIC3 null mice were less sensitive than wild type mice at 21 day after SNI, indicating a role for ASIC3. Finally, to investigate other possible roles of ASICs in the perception of the environment, we measured the baseline heat responses. We used two different models; the tail flick model and the hot plate model. ASIC1a null mice showed increased thermal allodynia behaviour in the hot plate test at three different temperatures (49, 52, 55°C) compared to their wild type littermates. On the contrary, ASIC2 null mice showed reduced thermal allodynia behaviour in the hot plate test compared to their wild type littermates at the three same temperatures. We conclude that ASIC1a and ASIC2 in mice can play a role in temperature sensing. It is currently not understood how ASICs are involved in temperature sensing and what the reason for the opposed effects in the two knockout models is.

De lo eterno a lo infinito: un intento de reconstrucción del argumento de Meliso (B2-4 D-K)

El autor ofrece un intento de reconstrucción lógicamente consistente e históricamenteplausible del argumento con que probaba Meliso la infinitud de lo que es (Mel. B 2-4 D-K), argumento tradicionalmente considerado como un manualístico ejemplo de falacia. La auténtica demostración de la infinitud por Meliso es la que menciona Aristóteles en De gen. et corr. 1 8, 325 a 13 (= Mel. B 4 a Reale), mientras que B 2, donde se la ha solido querer ver, tan sólo contiene una previa enunciación (primera frase) de los dos argumentos que van a seguir y el desarrollo del primero de ellos; el segundo, sobre la infinitud espacial, se desarrollaría en la segunda parte del fragmento, parte que, excepto la primera frase (B 3), se ha perdido. La reinterpretación de la primera partecomo una prueba de la infinitud se debe a Aristóteles, quien logró sacar magisteril partido de los defectos formales del argumento para echar por tierra la más importante tesis de su adversario atribuyéndole una demostración lógicamente inconsistente, de la que, en realidad, Meliso nunca se sirvió.

Inhibition of Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase by digoxin and its relation with energy expenditure and nutrient oxidation rate.

This study investigates the effects of digoxin, an inhibitor of the Na+ pump (Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase), on resting metabolic rate (RMR), respiratory quotient (RQ), and nutrient oxidation rate. Twelve healthy male subjects followed a double-blind protocol design and received either 1 mg/day digoxin or a placebo 2 days before indirect calorimetry measurements. Digoxin induced a 0.22 +/- 0.07 kJ/min or 3.8 +/- 1.5% (mean +/- SE, P = 0.01) decrease in RMR and a 0.40 +/- 0.13 kJ/min (P = 0.01) decrease in fat oxidation rate, whereas carbohydrate and protein oxidation rates did not change significantly. A dose-response relationship between serum digoxin and RQ was observed. These results suggest that digoxin reduces not only RMR but also fat oxidation rate by mechanisms that remain to be elucidated. Because a linkage and an association between genes coding the Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase and the RQ have been previously observed, the present demonstration of an effect of Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase inhibition on fat oxidation rate strengthens the concept that the activity of this enzyme may play a role in body weight regulation.

Modulation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase activity in the embryonic heart in response to anoxia-reoxygenation: involvement of the Ca2+ and mitoKATP channels.

Whether the response of the fetal heart to ischemia-reperfusion is associated with activation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway is not known. In contrast, involvement of the sarcolemmal L-type Ca2+ channel (LCC) and the mitochondrial KATP (mitoKATP) channel has been established. This work aimed at investigating the profile of JNK activity during anoxia-reoxygenation and its modulation by LCC and mitoK(ATP) channel. Hearts isolated from 4-day-old chick embryos were submitted to anoxia (30 min) and reoxygenation (60 min). Using the kinase assay method, the profile of JNK activity in the ventricle was determined every 10 min throughout anoxia-reoxygenation. Effects on JNK activity of the LCC blocker verapamil (10 nM), the mitoK(ATP) channel opener diazoxide (50 microM) and the blocker 5-hydroxydecanoate (5-HD, 500 microM), the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter (MCU) inhibitor Ru360 (10 microM), and the antioxidant N-(2-mercaptopropionyl) glycine (MPG, 1 mM) were determined. In untreated hearts, JNK activity was increased by 40% during anoxia and peaked fivefold relative to basal level after 30-40 min reoxygenation. This peak value was reduced by half by diazoxide and was tripled by 5-HD. Furthermore, the 5-HD-mediated stimulation of JNK activity during reoxygenation was abolished by diazoxide, verapamil or Ru360. MPG had no effect on JNK activity, whatever the conditions. None of the tested pharmacological agents altered JNK activity under basal normoxic conditions. Thus, in the embryonic heart, JNK activity exhibits a characteristic pattern during anoxia and reoxygenation and the respective open-state of LCC, MCU and mitoKATP channel can be a major determinant of JNK activity in a ROS-independent manner.

A single point mutation in the pore region of the epithelial Na+ channel changes ion selectivity by modifying molecular sieving.

The epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) belongs to a new class of channel proteins called the ENaC/DEG superfamily involved in epithelial Na+ transport, mechanotransduction, and neurotransmission. The role of ENaC in Na+ homeostasis and in the control of blood pressure has been demonstrated recently by the identification of mutations in ENaC beta and gamma subunits causing hypertension. The function of ENaC in Na+ reabsorption depends critically on its ability to discriminate between Na+ and other ions like K+ or Ca2+. ENaC is virtually impermeant to K+ ions, and the molecular basis for its high ionic selectivity is largely unknown. We have identified a conserved Ser residue in the second transmembrane domain of the ENaC alpha subunit (alphaS589), which when mutated allows larger ions such as K+, Rb+, Cs+, and divalent cations to pass through the channel. The relative ion permeability of each of the alphaS589 mutants is related inversely to the ionic radius of the permeant ion, indicating that alphaS589 mutations increase the molecular cutoff of the channel by modifying the pore geometry at the selectivity filter. Proper geometry of the pore is required to tightly accommodate Na+ and Li+ ions and to exclude larger cations. We provide evidence that ENaC discriminates between cations mainly on the basis of their size and the energy of dehydration.

Étude du mécanisme de transport des cations par la Na, K-ATPase et de son implication dans la migraine familiale hémiplégique de type 2

Résumé La Na,K-ATPase est une protéine transmembranaire, présente dans toutes les cellules de mammifères et indispensable à la viabilité cellulaire. Elle permet le maintien des gradients sodiques et potassiques à l'origine du potentiel membranaire en transportant 3 Na+ en dehors de la cellule contre 2 K+, grâce à l'énergie fournie par l'hydrolyse d'une molécule d'ATP. Le potentiel membranaire est indispensable au maintien de l'excitabilité cellulaire et à la transmission de l'influx nerveux. Il semblerait que la Na,K-ATPase soit liée à l'hypertension et à certains troubles neurologiques comme la Migraine Familiale Hémiplégique (1VIFH). La MFH est une forme de migraine avec aura, qui se caractérise par une hémiparésie. Cette forme de migraine est très rare. Elle se transmet génétiquement sur un mode autosomique dominant. Plusieurs mutations localisées dans le gène de la Na,K-ATPase ont été identifiées durant ces 3 dernières années. C'est la première fois qu'une maladie génétique est associée au gène de la Na,K-ATPase. La compréhension du fonctionnement de cette protéine peut donner des informations sur les mécanismes conduisant à ces pathologies. On sait que la fonction d'une protéine est liée à sa structure. L'étude de sa fonction nécessite donc l'étude de sa structure. Alors que la structure de la SERCA a été déterminée à haute résolution, par cristallographie, celle de la Na,K-ATPase ne l'est toujours pas. Mais ces 2 ATPases présentent une telle homologie qu'un modèle de la Na,K-ATPase a pu être élaboré à partir de la structure de la SERCA. Les objectifs de cette étude sont d'une part, de comprendre le contrôle de l'accessibilité du K+ extracellulaire àses sites de liaison. Pour cela, nous avons ciblé cette étude sur la 2ìème et la 31eme boucle extracellulaire, qui relient respectivement les segments transmembranaires (STM) 3-4 et 5-6. Le choix s'est porté sur ces 2 boucles car elles bordent le canal des cations formés des 4ième' Sième et 6'ème hélices. D'autre part, nous avons également essayer de comprendre les effets des mutations, liées à la Migraine Familiale Hémiplégique de type 2 (MFH2), sur la fonctionnalité de la Na,K-ATPase. Alors que les STM et les domaines cytoplasmiques sont relativement proches entre la Na,KATPase et la SERCA, les boucles extracellulaires présentent des différences. Le modèle n'est donc pas une approche fiable pour déterminer la structure et la fonction des régions extracellulaires. Nous avons alors utilisé une approche fonctionnelle faisant appel à la mutation dirigée puis à l'étude de l'activité fonctionnelle de la Na,K ATPase par électrophysiologie sur des ovocytes de Xenopus. En conclusion, nous pouvons dire que la troisième boucle extracellulaire participerait à la structure de la voie d'entrée des cations et que la deuxième boucle extracellulaire semble impliquée dans le contrôle de l'accessibilité des ions K+àses sites de liaison. Concernant les mutations associées à la MFH2, nos résultats ont montré une forte diminution de l'activité fonctionnelle de la pompe Na,K, inférieure aux conditions physiologiques de fonctionnement, et pour une des mutations nous avons observés une diminution de l'affmité apparente au K+ externe. Nous poumons faire l'hypothèse que l'origine pathologique de la migraine est liée à une diminution de l'activité de la pompe à Na+. Summary The Na,K-ATPase is a transmembrane protein, present in all mammalian cells and is necessary for the viability of the cells. It maintains the gradients of Na+ and K+ involved in the membrane potential, by transporting 3Na+ out the cell, and 2K+ into the cell, using the energy providing from one ATP molecule hydrolysis. The membrane potential is necessary for the cell excitability and for the transmission of the nervous signal. Some evidence show that Na,K-ATPase is involved in hypertension and neurological disorders like the Familial Hemiplegic Migraine (FHM). La FHM is a rare form of migraine characterised by aura and hemiparesis and an autosomal dominant transmission. Several mutations linked to the Na,KATPase gene have been identified during these 3 last years. It's the first genetic disorder associated with the Na,K-ATPase gene. Understand the function of this protein is important to elucidate the mechanisms implicated in these pathologies. The function of a protein is linked with its structure. Thus, to know the function of a protein, we need to know its structure. While the Ca-ATPase (SERCA) has been crystallised with a high resolution, the structure of the Na,K-ATPase is not known. Because of the great homology between these 2 ATPases, a model of the Na,K-ATPase was realised by comparing with the structure of the SERCA. The aim of this study is on one side, understand the control of the extracellular K+ accessibility to their binding sites. Because of theirs closed proximity with the cation pathway, located between the 4th, 5th and 6th helices, we have targeted this study on the 2nd and the 3rd extracellular loops linking respectively the transmembrane segment (TMS) 3 and 4, and the TMS 5 and 6. And on the other side, we have tried to understand the functional effects of mutations linked with the Familial Hemiplegic Migraine Type 2 (FHM2). In contrast with the transmembrane segments and the cytoplasmic domains, the extracellular loops show lots of difference between Na,K-ATPase and SERCA, the model is not a good approach to know the structure and the function of the extracellular loops. Thus, we have used a functional approach consisting in directed mutagenesis and the study of the functional activity of the Na,K-ATPase by electrophysiological techniques with Xenopus oocytes. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that the third extracellular loop could participate in the structure of the entry of the cations pathway and that the second extracellular loop could control the K+ accessibility to their binding sites. Concerning the mutations associated with the FHM2, our results showed a strong decrease in the functional activity of the Na,K-pump under physiological conditions and for one of mutations, induce a decrease in the apparent external K+ affinity. We could make the hypothesis that the pathogenesis of migraine is related to the decrease in Na,K-pump activity. Résumé au large publique De la même manière que l'assemblage des mots forme des phrases et que l'assemblage des phrases forme des histoires, l'assemblage des cellules forme des organes et l'ensemble des organes constitue les êtres vivants. La fonction d'une cellule dans le corps humain peut se rapprocher de celle d'une usine hydroélectrique. La matière première apportée est l'eau, l'usine électrique va ensuite convertir l'eau en énergie hydraulique pour fournir de l'électricité. Le fonctionnement de base d'une cellule suit le même processus. La cellule a besoin de matières premières (oxygène, nutriments, eau...) pour produire une énergie sous forme chimique, l'ATP. Cette énergie est utilisée par exemple pour contracter les muscles et permet donc à l'individu de se déplacer. Morphologiquement la cellule est une sorte de petit sac rempli de liquide (milieu intracellulaire) baignant elle-même dans le liquide (milieu extracellulaire) composant le corps humain (un adulte est constitué environ de 65 % d'eau). La composition du milieu intracellulaire est différente de celle du milieu extracellulaire. Cette différence doit être maintenue pour que l'organisme fonctionne correctement. Une des différences majeures est la quantité de sodium. En effet il y a beaucoup plus de sodium à l'extérieur qu'à l'intérieur de la cellule. Bien que l'intérieur de la cellule soit isolé de l'extérieur par une membrane, le sodium arrive à passer à travers cette membrane, ce qui a tendance à augmenter la quantité de sodium dans la cellule et donc à diminuer sa différence de concentration entre le milieu extracellulaire et le milieu intracellulaire. Mais dans les membranes, il existe des pompes qui tournent et dont le rôle est de rejeter le sodium de la cellule. Ces pompes sont des protéines connues sous le nom de pompe à sodium ou Na,K-ATPase. On lui attribue le nom de Na,K-ATPase car en réalité elle rejette du sodium (Na) et en échange elle fait entrer dans la cellule du potassium (K), et pour fonctionner elle a besoin d'énergie (ATP). Lorsque les pompes à sodium ne fonctionnent pas bien, cela peut conduire à des maladies. En effet la Migraine Familiale Hémiplégique de type 2, est une migraine très rare qui se caractérise par l'apparition de la paralysie de la moitié d'un corps avant l'apparition du mal de tête. C'est une maladie génétique (altération qui modifie la fonction d'une protéine) qui touche la pompe à sodium située dans le cerveau. On a découvert que certaines altérations (mutations) empêchent les pompes à sodium de fonctionner correctement. On pense alors que le développement des migraines est en partie dû au fait que ces pompes fonctionnent moins bien. Il est important de bien connaître la fonction de ces pompes car cela permet de comprendre des mécanismes pouvant conduire à certaines maladies, comme les migraines. En biologie, la fonction d'une protéine est étudiée à travers sa structure. C'est pourquoi l'objectif de cette thèse a été d'étudier la structure de la Na,K-ATPase afin de mieux comprendre son mécanisme d'action.

Epithelial sodium channel/degenerin family of ion channels: a variety of functions for a shared structure.

The recently discovered epithelial sodium channel (ENaC)/degenerin (DEG) gene family encodes sodium channels involved in various cell functions in metazoans. Subfamilies found in invertebrates or mammals are functionally distinct. The degenerins in Caenorhabditis elegans participate in mechanotransduction in neuronal cells, FaNaC in snails is a ligand-gated channel activated by neuropeptides, and the Drosophila subfamily is expressed in gonads and neurons. In mammals, ENaC mediates Na+ transport in epithelia and is essential for sodium homeostasis. The ASIC genes encode proton-gated cation channels in both the central and peripheral nervous system that could be involved in pain transduction. This review summarizes the physiological roles of the different channels belonging to this family, their biophysical and pharmacological characteristics, and the emerging knowledge of their molecular structure. Although functionally different, the ENaC/DEG family members share functional domains that are involved in the control of channel activity and in the formation of the pore. The functional heterogeneity among the members of the ENaC/DEG channel family provides a unique opportunity to address the molecular basis of basic channel functions such as activation by ligands, mechanotransduction, ionic selectivity, or block by pharmacological ligands.

Brain energy consumption induced by electrical stimulation promotes systemic glucose uptake.

BACKGROUND: Controlled transcranial stimulation of the brain is part of clinical treatment strategies in neuropsychiatric diseases such as depression, stroke, or Parkinson's disease. Manipulating brain activity by transcranial stimulation, however, inevitably influences other control centers of various neuronal and neurohormonal feedback loops and therefore may concomitantly affect systemic metabolic regulation. Because hypothalamic adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channels, which function as local energy sensors, are centrally involved in the regulation of glucose homeostasis, we tested whether transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) causes an excitation-induced transient neuronal energy depletion and thus influences systemic glucose homeostasis and related neuroendocrine mediators.METHODS: In a crossover design testing 15 healthy male volunteers, we increased neuronal excitation by anodal tDCS versus sham and examined cerebral energy consumption with (31)phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Systemic glucose uptake was determined by euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic glucose clamp, and neurohormonal measurements comprised the parameters of the stress systems.RESULTS: We found that anodic tDCS-induced neuronal excitation causes an energetic depletion, as quantified by (31)phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Moreover, tDCS-induced cerebral energy consumption promotes systemic glucose tolerance in a standardized euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic glucose clamp procedure and reduces neurohormonal stress axes activity.CONCLUSIONS: Our data demonstrate that transcranial brain stimulation not only evokes alterations in local neuronal processes but also clearly influences downstream metabolic systems regulated by the brain. The beneficial effects of tDCS on metabolic features may thus qualify brain stimulation as a promising nonpharmacologic therapy option for drug-induced or comorbid metabolic disturbances in various neuropsychiatric diseases.

Understanding globalization through football: the new international division of labour, migratory channels and transnational trade circuits

Among all sports, football is the one that saw the largest diffusion during the 20th century. Professional leagues exist on all continents and professional footballers are constantly on the move, trying to reach the wealthiest European clubs. Using the football players' market as an example, this article highlights some key features of economic globalization: the new international division of labour, the ever increasing role played by intermediaries to bind the demand and supply of work on a transnational scale, and the setting up of spatially fragmented trade circuits. These processes form the basis for the creation of a global market of footballers in which clubs and championships play complementary roles and are more than ever functionally integrated beyond national borders.