Differential cytopathogenesis of respiratory syncytial virus prototypic and clinical isolates in primary pediatric bronchial epithelial cells.

Background Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes severe respiratory disease in infants. Airway epithelial cells are the principle targets of RSV infection. However, the mechanisms by which it causes disease are poorly understood. Most RSV pathogenesis data are derived using laboratory-adapted prototypic strains. We hypothesized that such strains may be poorly representative of recent clinical isolates in terms of virus/host interactions in primary human bronchial epithelial cells (PBECs). Methods To address this hypothesis, we isolated three RSV strains from infants hospitalized with bronchiolitis and compared them with the prototypic RSV A2 in terms of cytopathology, virus growth kinetics and chemokine secretion in infected PBEC monolayers. Results RSV A2 rapidly obliterated the PBECs, whereas the clinical isolates caused much less cytopathology. Concomitantly, RSV A2 also grew faster and to higher titers in PBECs. Furthermore, dramatically increased secretion of IP-10 and RANTES was evident following A2 infection compared with the clinical isolates. Conclusions The prototypic RSV strain A2 is poorly representative of recent clinical isolates in terms of cytopathogenicity, viral growth kinetics and pro-inflammatory responses induced following infection of PBEC monolayers. Thus, the choice of RSV strain may have important implications for future RSV pathogenesis studies.

Early target cells of measles virus after aerosol infection of non-human primates

Measles virus (MV) is highly infectious, and has long been thought to enter the host by infecting epithelial cells of the respiratory tract. However, epithelial cells do not express signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (CD150), which is the high-affinity cellular receptor for wild-type MV strains. We have generated a new recombinant MV strain expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP), based on a wild-type genotype B3 virus isolate from Khartoum, Sudan (KS). Cynomolgus macaques were infected with a high dose of rMV(KS)EGFP by aerosol inhalation to ensure that the virus could reach the full range of potential target cells throughout the entire respiratory tract. Animals were euthanized 2, 3, 4 or 5 days post-infection (d.p.i., n?=?3 per time point) and infected (EGFP(+)) cells were identified at all four time points, albeit at low levels 2 and 3 d.p.i. At these earliest time points, MV-infected cells were exclusively detected in the lungs by fluorescence microscopy, histopathology and/or virus isolation from broncho-alveolar lavage cells. On 2 d.p.i., EGFP(+) cells were phenotypically typed as large mononuclear cells present in the alveolar lumen or lining the alveolar epithelium. One to two days later, larger clusters of MV-infected cells were detected in bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) and in the tracheo-bronchial lymph nodes. From 4 d.p.i. onward, MV-infected cells were detected in peripheral blood and various lymphoid tissues. In spite of the possibility for the aerosolized virus to infect cells and lymphoid tissues of the upper respiratory tract, MV-infected cells were not detected in either the tonsils or the adenoids until after onset of viremia. These data strongly suggest that in our model MV entered the host at the alveolar level by infecting macrophages or dendritic cells, which traffic the virus to BALT or regional lymph nodes, resulting in local amplification and subsequent systemic dissemination by viremia.

In vivo tropism of attenuated and pathogenic measles virus expressing green fluorescent protein in macaques

The global increase in measles vaccination has resulted in a significant reduction of measles mortality. The standard route of administration for the live-attenuated measles virus (MV) vaccine is subcutaneous injection, although alternative needle-free routes, including aerosol delivery, are under investigation. In vitro, attenuated MV has a much wider tropism than clinical isolates, as it can use both CD46 and CD150 as cellular receptors. To compare the in vivo tropism of attenuated and pathogenic MV, we infected cynomolgus macaques with pathogenic or attenuated recombinant MV expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (GFP) (strains IC323 and Edmonston, respectively) via the intratracheal or aerosol route. Surprisingly, viral loads and cellular tropism in the lungs were similar for the two viruses regardless of the route of administration, and CD11c-positive cells were identified as the major target population. However, only the pathogenic MV caused significant viremia, which resulted in massive virus replication in B and T lymphocytes in lymphoid tissues and viral dissemination to the skin and the submucosa of respiratory epithelia. Attenuated MV was rarely detected in lymphoid tissues, and when it was, only in isolated infected cells. Following aerosol inhalation, attenuated MV was detected at early time points in the upper respiratory tract, suggesting local virus replication. This contrasts with pathogenic MV, which invaded the upper respiratory tract only after the onset of viremia. This study shows that despite in vitro differences, attenuated and pathogenic MV show highly similar in vivo tropism in the lungs. However, systemic spread of attenuated MV is restricted.

Wild-type measles virus infection of primary epithelial cells occurs via the basolateral surface without syncytium formation or release of infectious virus

The lymphotropic and myelotropic nature of wild-type measles virus (wt-MV) is well recognized, with dendritic cells and lymphocytes expressing the MV receptor CD150 mediating systemic spread of the virus. Infection of respiratory epithelial cells has long been considered crucial for entry of MV into the body. However, the lack of detectable CD150 on these cells raises the issue of their importance in the pathogenesis of measles. This study utilized a combination of in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo model systems to characterize the susceptibility of epithelial cells to wt-MV of proven pathogenicity. Low numbers of MV-infected epithelial cells in close proximity to underlying infected lymphocytes or myeloid cells suggested infection via the basolateral side of the epithelium in the macaque model. In primary cultures of human bronchial epithelial cells, foci of MV-infected cells were only observed following infection via the basolateral cell surface. The extent of infection in primary cells was enhanced both in vitro and in ex vivo cornea rim tissue by disrupting the integrity of the cells prior to the application of virus. This demonstrated that, whilst epithelial cells may not be the primary target cells for wt-MV, areas of epithelium in which tight junctions are disrupted can become infected using high m.o.i. The low numbers of MV-infected epithelial cells observed in vivo in conjunction with the absence of infectious virus release from infected primary cell cultures suggest that epithelial cells have a peripheral role in MV transmission.

Molecular differences between two Jeryl Lynn mumps virus vaccine component strains, JL5 and JL2

The Jeryl Lynn (JL) vaccine against mumps virus (MuV) contains two components, MuV(JL5) and MuV(JL2), which differ by over 400 nt. Due to the occurrence of bias in the direction of mutation, these differences and those found in nucleotide sequences of different isolates of the minor component in the vaccine (MuV(JL2)) might be due to the effect of ADAR-like deaminases on MuV grown in tissue-cultured cells. A molecular clone Of MuV(JL2) (pMuV(JL2)) and MuV(JL2) -specific helper plasmids were constructed in order to investigate molecular interactions between MuV(JL5) and MuV(JL2), to augment the existing molecular clone Of MuV(JL)5 (pMuV(JL5)) and MuV(JL5) -specific helper plasmids. Genome and mRNA termini Of MuV(JL2) were characterized, and an unusual oligo-G insertion transcriptional editing event was detected near the F mRNA polyadenylation site of MuV(JL2), but not Of MuV(JL5). Genes encoding glycoproteins of rMuV(JL2) and rMuV(JL5) have been exchanged to characterize the oligo-G insertion, which associated with the specific sequence of the IF gene of MuV(JL2) and not with any other genes or the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of strain MuV(JL2). The results indicate that a single G-to-A sequence change obliterates the co-transcriptional editing of the F mRNA and that this oligo-G insertion does not affect the growth of the virus.

Deformed wing virus and drone mating flights in the honey bee (Apis mellifera): implications for sexual transmission of a major honey bee virus

Deformed wing virus (DWV) represents an ideal model to study the interaction between mode of transmission and virulence in honey bees since it exhibits both horizontal and vertical transmissions. However, it is not yet clear if venereal-vertical transmission represents a regular mode of transmission for this virus in natural honey bee populations. Here, we provide clear evidence for the occurrence of high DWV titres in the endophallus of sexually mature drones collected from drone congregation areas (DCAs). Furthermore, the endophallus DWV titres of drones collected at their maternal hives were no different from drones collected at nearby DCAs, suggesting that high-titre DWV infection of the endophallus does not hinder the ability of drones to reach the mating area. The results are discussed within the context of the dispersal of DWV between colonies and the definition of DWV virulence with respect to the transmission route and the types of tissues infected.

In vitro modeling of respiratory syncytial virus infection of pediatric bronchial epithelium, the primary target of infection in vivo

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the major viral cause of severe pulmonary disease in young infants worldwide. However, the mechanisms by which RSV causes disease in humans remain poorly understood. To help bridge this gap, we developed an ex vivo/in vitro model of RSV infection based on well-differentiated primary pediatric bronchial epithelial cells (WD-PBECs), the primary targets of RSV infection in vivo. Our RSV/WD-PBEC model demonstrated remarkable similarities to hallmarks of RSV infection in infant lungs. These hallmarks included restriction of infection to noncontiguous or small clumps of apical ciliated and occasional nonciliated epithelial cells, apoptosis and sloughing of apical epithelial cells, occasional syncytium formation, goblet cell hyperplasia/metaplasia, and mucus hypersecretion. RSV was shed exclusively from the apical surface at titers consistent with those in airway aspirates from hospitalized infants. Furthermore, secretion of proinflammatory chemokines such as CXCL10, CCL5, IL-6, and CXCL8 reflected those chemokines present in airway aspirates. Interestingly, a recent RSV clinical isolate induced more cytopathogenesis than the prototypic A2 strain. Our findings indicate that this RSV/WD-PBEC model provides an authentic surrogate for RSV infection of airway epithelium in vivo. As such, this model may provide insights into RSV pathogenesis in humans that ultimately lead to successful RSV vaccines or therapeutics.

The Respiratory Syncytial Virus G Protein Conserved Domain Induces a Persistent and Protective Antibody Response in Rodents

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is an important cause of severe upper and lower respiratory disease in infants and in the elderly. There are 2 main RSV subtypes A and B. A recombinant vaccine was designed based on the central domain of the RSV-A attachment G protein which we had previously named G2Na (aa130–230). Here we evaluated immunogenicity, persistence of antibody (Ab) response and protective efficacy induced in rodents by: (i) G2Na fused to DT (Diphtheria toxin) fragments in cotton rats. DT fusion did not potentiate neutralizing Ab responses against RSV-A or cross-reactivity to RSV-B. (ii) G2Nb (aa130–230 of the RSV-B G protein) either fused to, or admixed with G2Na. G2Nb did not induce RSV-B-reactive Ab responses. (iii) G2Na at low doses. Two injections of 3 µg G2Na in Alum were sufficient to induce protective immune responses in mouse lungs, preventing RSV-A and greatly reducing RSV-B infections. In cotton rats, G2Na-induced RSV-reactive Ab and protective immunity against RSV-A challenge that persisted for at least 24 weeks. (iv) injecting RSV primed mice with a single dose of G2Na/Alum or G2Na/PLGA [poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide]. Despite the presence of pre-existing RSV-specific Abs, these formulations effectively boosted anti-RSV Ab titres and increased Ab titres persisted for at least 21 weeks. Affinity maturation of these Abs increased from day 28 to day 148. These data indicate that G2Na has potential as a component of an RSV vaccine formulation.

Development and comparison of a Primer-Probe Energy Transfer based assay and a 5 ' conjugated Minor Groove Binder assay for sensitive real-time PCR detection of infectious laryngotracheitis virus

In this study the design and development of two real-time PCR assays for the rapid, sensitive and specific detection of infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV) DNA is described. A Primer-Probe Energy Transfer (PriProET) assay and 5' conjugated Minor Groove Binder (MGB) method are compared and contrasted. Both have been designed to target the thymidine kinase gene of the ILTV genome. Both PriProET and MGB assays are capable of detecting 20 copies of a DNA standard per reaction and are linear from 2 x 10(8) to 2 x 10(2) copies/mu l. Neither PriProET, nor MGB reacted with heterologous herpesviruses, indicating a high specificity of the two methods as novel tools for virus detection and identification. This study demonstrates the suitability of PriProET and 5' conjugated MGB probes as real-time PCR chemistries for the diagnosis of respiratory diseases caused by ILTV. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Pan-serotypic detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus using a minor groove binder probe reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assay

A novel assay for the pan-serotypic detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) was designed using a 5' conjugated minor groove binder (MGB) probe real-time RT-PCR system. This assay targets the 3D region of the FMDV genome and is capable of detecting 20 copies of a transcribed RNA standard. The linear range of the test was eight logs from 2 x 10(1) to 2 x 10(8) copies and amplification time was approximately 2 h. Using a panel of 83 RNA samples from representative FMDV isolates, the diagnostic sensitivity of this test was shown to be equivalent to a TaqMan real-time RT-PCR that targets the 5' untranslated region of FMDV. Furthermore, the assay does not detect viruses causing similar clinical diseases in pigs such as swine vesicular disease virus and vesicular stomatitis virus, nor does it detect marine caliciviruses causing vesicular exanthema. The development of this assay provides a useful tool for the differential diagnosis of FMD, potentially for use in statutory or emergency testing programmes, or for detection of FMDV RNA in research applications. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.