Ni(II) and Ru(II) Schiff base complexes as catalysts for the reduction of benzene

Two new complexes, [MII(L)(Cl)(H2O)2]·H2O (where M=Ni or Ru and L = heterocyclic Schiff base, 3- hydroxyquinoxaline-2-carboxalidene-4-aminoantipyrine), have been synthesized and characterized by elemental analysis, FT-IR, UV–vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, FAB-MASS, TG–DTA, AAS, cyclic voltammetry, conductance and magnetic susceptibility measurements. The complexes have a distorted octahedral structure andwere found to be effective catalysts for the hydrogenation of benzene. The influence of several reaction parameters such as reaction time, temperature, hydrogen pressure, concentration of the catalyst and concentration of benzenewas tested. A turnover frequency of 5372 h−1 has been found in the case of ruthenium complex for the reduction of benzene at 80 ◦C with 3.64×10−6 mol catalyst, 0.34 mol benzene and at a hydrogen pressure of 50 bar. In the case of the nickel complex, a turnover frequency of 1718 h−1 has been found for the same reaction with 3.95×10−6 mol catalyst under similar experimental conditions. The nickel complex shows more selectivity for the formation of cyclohexene while the ruthenium complex is more selective for the formation of cyclohexane

Mathematical Modelling of the Dynamics of Granular Materials in a Rotating Cylinder

The current study is aimed at the development of a theoretical simulation tool based on Discrete Element Method (DEM) to 'interpret granular dynamics of solid bed in the cross section of the horizontal rotating cylinder at the microscopic level and subsequently apply this model to establish the transition behaviour, mixing and segregation.The simulation of the granular motion developed in this work is based on solving Newton's equation of motion for each particle in the granular bed subjected to the collisional forces, external forces and boundary forces. At every instant of time, the forces are tracked and the positions velocities and accelarations of each partcle is The software code for this simulation is written in VISUAL FORTRAN 90 After checking the validity of the code with special tests, it is used to investigate the transition behaviour of granular solids motion in the cross section of a rotating cylinder for various rotational speeds and fill fraction.This work is hence directed towards a theoretical investigation based on Discrete Element Method (DEM) of the motion of granular solids in the radial direction of the horizontal cylinder to elucidate the relationship between the operating parameters of the rotating cylinder geometry and physical properties ofthe granular solid.The operating parameters of the rotating cylinder include the various rotational velocities of the cylinder and volumetric fill. The physical properties of the granular solids include particle sizes, densities, stiffness coefficients, and coefficient of friction Further the work highlights the fundamental basis for the important phenomena of the system namely; (i) the different modes of solids motion observed in a transverse crosssection of the rotating cylinder for various rotational speeds, (ii) the radial mixing of the granular solid in terms of active layer depth (iii) rate coefficient of mixing as well as the transition behaviour in terms of the bed turnover time and rotational speed and (iv) the segregation mechanisms resulting from differences in the size and density of particles.The transition behaviour involving its six different modes of motion of the granular solid bed is quantified in terms of Froude number and the results obtained are validated with experimental and theoretical results reported in the literature The transition from slumping to rolling mode is quantified using the bed turnover time and a linear relationship is established between the bed turn over time and the inverse of the rotational speed of the cylinder as predicted by Davidson et al. [2000]. The effect of the rotational speed, fill fraction and coefficient of friction on the dynamic angle of repose are presented and discussed. The variation of active layer depth with respect to fill fraction and rotational speed have been investigated. The results obtained through simulation are compared with the experimental results reported by Van Puyvelde et. at. [2000] and Ding et at. [2002].The theoretical model has been further extended, to study the rmxmg and segregation in the transverse direction for different particle sizes and their size ratios. The effect of fill fraction and rotational speed on the transverse mixing behaviour is presented in the form of a mixing index and mixing kinetics curve. The segregation pattern obtained by the simulation of the granular solid bed with respect to the rotational speed of the cylinder is presented both in graphical and numerical forms. The segregation behaviour of the granular solid bed with respect to particle size, density and volume fraction of particle size has been investigated. Several important macro parameters characterising segregation such as mixing index, percolation index and segregation index have been derived from the simulation tool based on first principles developed in this work.

Dopamine D2 and 5-HT2A receptor gene expression

Neuronal dopamine and serotonin receptors are widely distributed in the central and the peripheral nervous systems at different levels. Dopaminergic and serotonergic systems have crucial role in aldehyde dehydrogenase regulation Stimulation of autonomic nervous system during ethanol treatment is suggested to be an important factor in regulating the ALDH function. The ALDH enzyme activity was increased in plasma, cerebral cortex, and liver but decreased in cerebellum. The ALDH enzyme affinity was decreased in plasma, brainstem and liver and increased in cerebral cortex and cerebellum. Dopamine and serotonin content decreased in liver and brain regions - cerebral cortex, corpus striatum of ethanol treated rats with an increased HVA/DA, 5-HIAA/5-HT tumover rate. Dopamine content decreased in brainstem with an increased HVA/DA turnover rate and serotonin content decreased with an increased 5-HIAA/5-HT turnover rate in the brainstem of ethanol treated rats compared to control. Serotonin content increased in hypothalamus with a decreased 5-HIAA/5—HT turnover rate where as dopamine content decreased in hypothalamus with an increased HVA/DA tumover rate of ethanol treated rats compared to control.alterations of DA D2 and 5-HTQA receptor function and gene expression in the cerebellum, hypothalamus, corpus striatum, cerebral cortex play an important role in the sympathetic regulation of ALDH enzyme in ethanol addiction. There is a serotonergic and dopaminergic functional regulation of ALDH activity in the brain regions and liver of ethanol treated rats. Gene expression studies of DA D2 and 5'HT2A studies confirm these observations. Perfusion studies using DA, 5-HT and glucose showed ALDH regulatory function. Brain activity measeurement using EEG showed a prominentfrontal brain wave difference. This will have immense clinical significance in the management of ethanol addiction.

Entrepreneurship and Motivation in Small Business Sector of Kerala

This thesis Entitled entrepreneurship and motivation in small business sector of kerala -A study of rubber products manufacturing industry.Rubber-based industry in Kerala was established only in the first half of the 20th century.the number of licensed manufacturers in the State has increased substantially over the years, particularly in the post- independence period. 54 rubber manufacturing units in 1965-66, the number of licensed rubber-based industrial units has increased to 1300 units in 2001-02. In 2001-02 Kerala occupied the primary position in the number of rubber goods manufacturers in the country.As per the latest report of the Third All India Census of Small Scale Industries 2001-02, Kerala has the third largest number of registered small scale units in the country next after Tamil Nadu and Utter Pradesh.This study of entrepreneurship in the small-scale rubber goods manufacturing industry in Kerala compares a cross section of successful and unsuccessful entrepreneurs with respect to socio-economic characteristics and motivational dynamics. Based on a sample survey of 120 entrepreneurs of Kottayam and Ernakulam districts successful and unsuccessful entrepreneurs were selected using multiple criteria. The study provides guidelines for the development of entrepreneurship in Kerala.The results on the socio-economic survey support the hypothesis that the successful entrepreneurs will differ from unsuccessful entrepreneurs with respect to education, social contacts, initial investment, sales turnover, profits, capital employed, personal income, and number of employees.Successful entrepreneurs were found to be self~starters. Successful entrepreneurs adopted a lot more technological changes than unsuccessful entrepreneurs. Successful entrepreneurs were more innovative — the percent of successful entrepreneurs and unsuccessful entrepreneurs reporting innovations in business were 31.50 and 8.50 percent respectively.

Serotonin Receptor Gene Expression And Insulin Function In Streptozotocin Induced Diabetic Rats

Recent studies have established a fimctional correlation of serotonergic and adrenergic function in the brain regions with insulin secretion in diabetic rats (Vahabzadeh et al., 1995). Administration of 5-HT”. agonist 8-OH-DPAT to conscious rats caused an increase in blood glucose level. This increase in blood glucose is due to inhibition of insulin secretion by increased circulating EPI (Chaouloff et al., 1990a; Chaouloff et al., 1990d; Chaoulo1T& Jeanrenaud, 1987). The increase in EPI is brought about by increased sympathetic stimulation. This increase can lead to increased sympatho-medullary stimulation thereby inhibiting insulin release (Bauhelal & Mir, 1993, Bauhelal & Mir, 1990a; Chaouloffet al., 1990d). Also, studies have shown that Gi protein in the liver has been decreased in diabetes which will increase gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis thereby causing hyperglycaemia (Pennington, 1987). Serotonergic control is suggested to exert different effects on insulin secretion according to the activation of different receptor subclasses (Pontiroli et al., 1975). In addition to this mechanism, the secretion of insulin is dependent on the turnover ratio of endogenous 5-hydroxy tryptophan (5-HTP) to 5-HT in the pancreatic islets (Jance er al., 1980). The reports so far stated does not explain the complete mechanism and the subclass of 5-HT receptors whose expression regulate insulin secretion in a diabetic state. Also, there is no report of a direct regulation of insulin secretion by 5-HT from the pancreatic islets even though there are reports stating that the pancreatic islets is a rich source of 5-HT (Bird et al., 1980). Therefore, in the present study the mechanism by which 5-HT and its receptors regulate insulin secretion from pancreatic [3-cells was investigated. Our results led to the following hypotheses by which 5-HT and its receptors regulate the insulin secretion.

A study on the Effect of Psychological Empowerment on Job Satisfaction and Job Related Stress Among the Bank Employees

The present research is carried out to understand how psychological empowerment, job satisfaction and job related stress are related.In banking sector, employees are less satisfied and less motivated than employees in other lines of work (Kelley, 1990; Bajpai, Naval and Deepak, 2004). The banking industry also suffers from high employee turnover rate (Branham, 2005; Nelson, 2007) and high level of stress (Chen and Lien, 2008). There are no adequate studies linking psychological empowerment and job satisfaction, stress, turnover etc. among employees of banking sector. Lack of psychological empowerment could be a reason for these problems faced by banking sector. Further majority of studies in psychological empowerment are carried out in manufacturing sector and studies in service sector are concentrated on hotel industry and hospitals. Empowerment takes different forms in different contexts (Zimmerman, 1995). In the light of above discussion, the present research is directed to explore the dimensions of psychological empowerment of employees in banking sector and to find out whether high psychological empowerment can increase job satisfaction and reduce job related stress among employees in banking sector

Operational Flexibility: A Model for Effective Project Management

The aim of this study is to investigate the role of operational flexibility for effective project management in the construction industry. The specific objectives are to: a) Identify the determinants of operational flexibility potential in construction project management b) Investigate the contribution of each of the determinants to operational flexibility potential in the construction industry c) Investigate on the moderating factors of operational flexibility potential in a construction project environment d) Investigate whether moderated operational flexibility potential mediates the path between predictors and effective construction project management e) Develop and test a conceptual model of achieving operational flexibility for effective project management The purpose of this study is to findout ways to utilize flexibility inorder to manage uncertain project environment and ultimately achieve effective project management. In what configuration these operational flexibility determinants are demanded by construction project environment in order to achieve project success. This research was conducted in three phases, namely: (i) exploratory phase (ii) questionnaire development phase; and (iii) data collection and analysis phase. The study needs firm level analysis and therefore real estate developers who are members of CREDAI, Kerala Chapter were considered. This study provides a framework on the functioning of operational flexibility, offering guidance to researchers and practitioners for discovering means to gain operational flexibility in construction firms. The findings provide an empirical understanding on kinds of resources and capabilities a construction firm must accumulate to respond flexibly to the changing project environment offering practitioners insights into practices that build firms operational flexibility potential. Firms are dealing with complex, continuous changing and uncertain environments due trends of globalization, technical changes and innovations and changes in the customers’ needs and expectations. To cope with the increasingly uncertain and quickly changing environment firms strive for flexibility. To achieve the level of flexibility that adds value to the customers, firms should look to flexibility from a day to day operational perspective. Each dimension of operational flexibility is derived from competences and capabilities. In this thesis only the influence on customer satisfaction and learning exploitation of flexibility dimensions which directly add value in the customers eyes are studied to answer the followingresearch questions: “What is the impact of operational flexibility on customer satisfaction?.” What are the predictors of operational flexibility in construction industry? .These questions can only be answered after answering the questions like “Why do firms need operational flexibility?” and “how can firms achieve operational flexibility?” in the context of the construction industry. The need for construction firms to be flexible, via the effective utilization of organizational resources and capabilities for improved responsiveness, is important because of the increasing rate of changes in the business environment within which they operate. Achieving operational flexibility is also important because it has a significant correlation with a project effectiveness and hence a firm’s turnover. It is essential for academics and practitioners to recognize that the attainment of operational flexibility involves different types namely: (i) Modification (ii) new product development and (iii) demand management requires different configurations of predictors (i.e., resources, capabilities and strategies). Construction firms should consider these relationships and implement appropriate management practices for developing and configuring the right kind of resources, capabilities and strategies towards achieving different operational flexibility types.

Wirkung von Ernterückständen transgener Pflanzen auf die mikrobielle C- und N-Transformation in landwirtschaftlich genutzten Böden am Beispiel von Bt-Mais

In der vorliegenden Arbeit ging es um die Erarbeitung, Anwendung und Beurteilung von quantitativen Analysenverfahren / Methoden für ein Monitoring von durch Bt-Mais verursachbaren Umwelteffekten im Boden. Die Ausgangsthese besagte, dass sich transgene Maisstreu beim mikrobiellen Abbau anders verhält als konventionelle. Bezugnehmend auf die These wurden zwei Freilandversuche (Freilandmikrokosmenmethode nach Raubuch 1997 über 2 Jahre, Quantifizierung des Maisstreuabbaus mit Hilfe kleiner Bodensäulen über 1 Jahr) und zwei Inkubationsversuche im Labor (INK bei drei verschiedenen Temperaturen über 49 Tage und INK mit verschiedenen landwirtschaftlich genutzten Böden über 49 Tage mit jeweils kontinuierlicher Respirationsratenermittlung nach Isermeyer 1952) sowie Inhaltsstoffbestimmungen der Maisstreu durchgeführt. Für alle Untersuchungen wurde Streu der vier Maissorten Novelis (transgen, Monsanto 810), Nobilis (Isolinie von Novelis), Valmont (transgen, Bt 176, Fa. Syngenta) und Prelude (Isolinie von Valmont) eingesetzt. Nach Beendigung der Laborversuche sowie des Freilandversuches nach der Freilandmikrokosmenmethode wurden mikrobielle Messgrößen wie Adenylategehalt, Ergosterolgehalt, Cmik- und Nmik-Gehalt am Boden-Streu-Gemisch bestimmt. Der Einsatz der Isotopentechnik (Bestimmung von 13C/12C an gemahlenem Boden-Streu-Gemisch bzw. gefriergetrocknetem K2SO4 als Extrakt aus dem Boden-Streu-Gemisch) ermöglichte eine genaue Quantifizierung der abgebauten Maisstreu und brachte dadurch Aufschluss über das Abbauverhalten verschiedener Maissorten. Bezüglich der Ermittlung der mikrobiellen Messgrößen ergab sich für die transgene Sorte Novelis* stets eine durchschnittlich geringere pilzliche Biomasse. Langfristig ergaben sich bei der Kohlenstoff- und Stickstoffdynamik keine Trends hinsichtlich transgener bzw. konventioneller Maisstreu. Sowohl im Freilandversuch nach der Mikrokosmenmethode als auch in den Inkubationsversuchen trat das Phänomen der kurzzeitigen Respirationsratenerhöhung der Mikroorganismen nach Zugabe der transgenen Maissorten auf, welches nicht bei Zugabe der konventionellen Maisstreu auszumachen war. ______________________________

Soil organic carbon management for sustainable land use in Sudano-Sahelian West Africa

Judged by their negative nutrient balances, low soil cover and low productivity, the predominant agro-pastoral farming systems in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of West Africa are highly unsustainable for crop production intensification. With kaolinite as the main clay type, the cation exchange capacity of the soils in this region, often less than 1 cmol_c kg^-1 soil, depends heavily on the organic carbon (Corg) content. However, due to low carbon sequestration and to the microbe, termite and temperature-induced rapid turnover rates of organic material in the present land-use systems, Corg contents of the topsoil are very low, ranging between 1 and 8 g kg^-1 in most soils. For sustainable food production, the availability of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) has to be increased considerably in combination with an improvement in soil physical properties. Therefore, the adoption of innovative management options that help to stop or even reverse the decline in Corg typically observed after cultivating bush or rangeland is of utmost importance. To maintain food production for a rapidly growing population, targeted applications of mineral fertilisers and the effective recycling of organic amendments as crop residues and manure are essential. Any increase in soil cover has large effects in reducing topsoil erosion by wind and water and favours the accumulation of wind-blown dust high in bases which in turn improves P availability. In the future decision support systems, based on GIS, modelling and simulation should be used to combine (i) available fertiliser response data from on-station and on-farm research, (ii) results on soil productivity restoration with the application of mineral and organic amendments and (iii) our present understanding of the cause-effect relationships governing the prevailing soil degradation processes. This will help to predict the effectiveness of regionally differentiated soil fertility management approaches to maintain or even increase soil Corg levels.

Composition and stability of organic matter fractions in soils under different land use regimes

Soil organic matter (SOM) vitally impacts all soil functions and plays a key role in the global carbon (C) cycle. More than 70% of the terrestric C stocks that participate in the active C cycle are stored in the soil. Therefore, quantitative knowledge of the rates of C incorporation into SOM fractions of different residence time is crucial to understand and predict the sequestration and stabilization of soil organic carbon (SOC). Consequently, there is a need of fractionation procedures that are capable of isolating functionally SOM fractions, i.e. fractions that are defined by their stability. The literature generally refers to three main mechanisms of SOM stabilization: protection of SOM from decomposition by (i) its structural composition, i.e. recalcitrance, (ii) spatial inaccessibility and/or (iii) interaction with soil minerals and metal ions. One of the difficulties in developing fractionation procedures for the isolation of functional SOM fractions is the marked heterogeneity of the soil environment with its various stabilization mechanisms – often several mechanisms operating simultaneously – in soils and soil horizons of different texture and mineralogy. The overall objective of the present thesis was to evaluate present fractionation techniques and to get a better understanding of the factors of SOM sequestration and stabilization. The first part of this study is attended to the structural composition of SOM. Using 13C cross-polarization magic-angle spinning (CPMAS) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, (i) the effect of land use on SOM composition was investigated and (ii) examined whether SOM composition contributes to the different stability of SOM in density and aggregate fractions. The second part of the present work deals with the mineral-associated SOM fraction. The aim was (iii) to evaluate the suitability of chemical fractionation procedures used in the literature for the isolation of stable SOM pools (stepwise hydrolysis, treatments using oxidizing agents like Na2S2O8, H2O2, and NaOCl as well as demineralization of the residue obtained by the NaOCl treatment using HF (NaOCl+HF)) by pool sizes, 13C and 14C data. Further, (iv) the isolated SOM fractions were compared to the inert organic matter (IOM) pool obtained for the investigated soils using the Rothamsted Carbon Model and isotope data in order to see whether the tested chemical fractionation methods produce SOM fractions capable to represent this pool. Besides chemical fractionation, (v) the suitability of thermal oxidation at different temperatures for obtaining stable SOC pools was evaluated. Finally, (vi) the short-term aggregate dynamics and the factors that impact macroaggregate formation and C stabilization were investigated by means of an incubation study using treatments with and without application of 15N labeled maize straw of different degradability (leaves and coarse roots). All treatments were conducted with and without the addition of fungicide. Two study sites with different soil properties and land managements were chosen for these investigations. The first one, located at Rotthalmünster, is a Stagnic Luvisol (silty loam) under different land use regimes. The Ah horizons of a spruce forest and continuous grassland and the Ap and E horizons of two plots with arable crops (continuous maize and wheat cropping) were examined. The soil of the second study site, located at Halle, is a Haplic Phaeozem (loamy sand) where the Ap horizons of two plots with arable crops (continuous maize and rye cropping) were investigated. Both study sites had a C3-/C4-vegetational change on the maize plot for the purpose of tracing the incorporation of the younger, maize-derived C into different SOM fractions and the calculation of apparent C turnover times of these. The Halle site is located near a train station and industrial areas, which caused a contamination with high amounts of fossil C. The investigation of aggregate and density fractions by 13C CPMAS NMR spectroscopy revealed that density fractionation isolated SOM fractions of different composition. The consumption of a considerable part (10–20%) of the easily available O-alkyl-C and the selective preservation of the more recalcitrant alkyl-C when passing from litter to the different particulate organic matter (POM) fractions suggest that density fractionation was able to isolate SOM fractions with different degrees of decomposition. The spectra of the aggregate fractions resembled those of the mineral-associated SOM fraction obtained by density fractionation and no considerable differences were observed between aggregate size classes. Comparison of plant litter, density and aggregate size fractions from soil under different land use showed that the type of land use markedly influenced the composition of SOM. While SOM of the acid forest soil was characterized by a large content (> 50%) of POM, which contained high amounts of spruce-litter derived alkyl-C, the organic matter in the biologically more active grassland and arable soils was dominated by mineral-associated SOM (> 95%). This SOM fraction comprised greater proportions of aryl- and carbonyl-C and is considered to contain a higher amount of microbially-derived organic substances. Land use can alter both, structure and stability of SOM fractions. All applied chemical treatments induced considerable SOC losses (> 70–95% of mineral-associated SOM) in the investigated soils. The proportion of residual C after chemical fractionation was largest in the arable Ap and E horizons and increased with decreasing C content in the initial SOC after stepwise hydrolysis as well as after the oxidative treatments with H2O2 and Na2S2O8. This can be expected for a functional stable pool of SOM, because it is assumed that the more easily available part of SOC is consumed first if C inputs decrease. All chemical treatments led to a preferential loss of the younger, maize-derived SOC, but this was most pronounced after the treatments with Na2S2O8 and H2O2. After all chemical fractionations, the mean 14C ages of SOC were higher than in the mineral-associated SOM fraction for both study sites and increased in the order: NaOCl < NaOCl+HF ≤ stepwise hydrolysis << H2O2 ≈ Na2S2O8. The results suggest that all treatments were capable of isolating a more stable SOM fraction, but the treatments with H2O2 and Na2S2O8 were the most efficient ones. However, none of the chemical fractionation methods was able to fit the IOM pool calculated using the Rothamsted Carbon Model and isotope data. In the evaluation of thermal oxidation for obtaining stable C fractions, SOC losses increased with temperature from 24–48% (200°C) to 100% (500°C). In the Halle maize Ap horizon, losses of the young, maize-derived C were considerably higher than losses of the older C3-derived C, leading to an increase in the apparent C turnover time from 220 years in mineral-associated SOC to 1158 years after thermal oxidation at 300°C. Most likely, the preferential loss of maize-derived C in the Halle soil was caused by the presence of the high amounts of fossil C mentioned above, which make up a relatively large thermally stable C3-C pool in this soil. This agrees with lower overall SOC losses for the Halle Ap horizon compared to the Rotthalmünster Ap horizon. In the Rotthalmünster soil only slightly more maize-derived than C3-derived SOC was removed by thermal oxidation. Apparent C turnover times increased slightly from 58 years in mineral-associated SOC to 77 years after thermal oxidation at 300°C in the Rotthalmünster Ap and from 151 to 247 years in the Rotthalmünster E horizon. This led to the conclusion that thermal oxidation of SOM was not capable of isolating SOM fractions of considerably higher stability. The incubation experiment showed that macroaggregates develop rapidly after the addition of easily available plant residues. Within the first four weeks of incubation, the maximum aggregation was reached in all treatments without addition of fungicide. The formation of water-stable macroaggregates was related to the size of the microbial biomass pool and its activity. Furthermore, fungi were found to be crucial for the development of soil macroaggregates as the formation of water-stable macroaggregates was significantly delayed in the fungicide treated soils. The C concentration in the obtained aggregate fractions decreased with decreasing aggregate size class, which is in line with the aggregate hierarchy postulated by several authors for soils with SOM as the major binding agent. Macroaggregation involved incorporation of large amounts maize-derived organic matter, but macroaggregates did not play the most important role in the stabilization of maize-derived SOM, because of their relatively low amount (less than 10% of the soil mass). Furthermore, the maize-derived organic matter was quickly incorporated into all aggregate size classes. The microaggregate fraction stored the largest quantities of maize-derived C and N – up to 70% of the residual maize-C and -N were stored in this fraction.

Field measurements of the CO2 evolution rate under different crops during an irrigation cycle in a mountain oasis of Oman

For millennia oasis agriculture has been the backbone of rural livelihood in the desertic Sultanate of Oman. However, little is known about the functioning of these oasis systems, in particular with respect to the C turnover. The objective was to determine the effects of crop, i.e. alfalfa, wheat and bare fallow on the CO2 evolution rate during an irrigation cycle in relation to changes in soil water content and soil temperature. The gravimetric soil water content decreased from initially 24% to approximately 16% within 7 days after irrigation. The mean CO2 evolution rates increased significantly in the order fallow (27.4 mg C m^−2 h^−1) < wheat (45.5 mg C m^−2 h^−1) < alfalfa (97.5 mg C m^−2 h^−1). It can be calculated from these data that the CO2 evolution rate of the alfalfa root system was nearly four times higher than the corresponding rate in the wheat root system. The decline in CO2 evolution rate, especially during the first 4 days after irrigation, was significantly related to the decline in the gravimetric water content, with r = 0.70. CO2 evolution rate and soil temperature at 5 cm depth were negatively correlated (r = -0.56,n = 261) due to increasing soil temperature with decreasing gravimetric water content.

Effects of fertilizer type and rate on partitioning of soil organic matter into pools of different stability

Type and rate of fertilizers influence the level of soil organic carbon (Corg) and total nitrogen (Nt) markedly, but the effect on C and N partitioning into different pools is open to question. The objectives of the present work were to: (i) quantify the impact of fertilizer type and rate on labile, intermediate and passive C and N pools by using a combination of biological, chemical and mathematical methods; (ii) explain previously reported differences in the soil organic matter (SOM) levels between soils receiving farmyard manure with or without biodynamic preparations by using Corg time series and information on SOM partitioning; and (iii) quantify the long-term and short-term dynamics of SOM in density fractions and microbial biomass as affected by fertilizer type and rate and determine the incorporation of crop residues into labile SOM fractions. Samples were taken from a sandy Cambisol from the long-term fertilization trial in Darmstadt, Germany, founded in 1980. The nine treatments (four field replicates) were: straw incorporation plus application of mineral fertilizer (MSI) and application of rotted farmyard manure with (DYN) or without (FYM) addition of biodynamic preparations, each at high (140 – 150 kg N ha-1 year-1; MSIH, DYNH, FYMH), medium (100 kg N ha-1 year-1; MSIM, DYNM, FYMM) and low (50 – 60 kg N ha-1 year-1; MSIL, DYNL, FYML) rates. The main findings were: (i) The stocks of Corg (t ha-1) were affected by fertilizer type and rate and increased in the order MSIL (23.6), MSIM (23.7), MSIH (24.2) < FYML (25.3) < FYMM (28.1), FYMH (28.1). Stocks of Nt were affected in the same way (C/N ratio: 11). Storage of C and N in the modelled labile pools (turnover times: 462 and 153 days for C and N, respectively) were not influenced by the type of fertilizer (FYM and MSI) but depended significantly (p ≤ 0.05) on the application rate and ranged from 1.8 to 3.2 t C ha 1 (7 – 13% of Corg) and from 90 to 140 kg N ha-1 (4-5% of Nt). In the calculated intermediate pool (C/N ratio 7), stocks of C were markedly higher in FYM treatments (15-18 t ha-1) compared to MSI treatments (12-14 t ha-1). This showed that differences in SOM stocks in the sandy Cambisol induced by fertilizer rate may be short-lived in case of changing management, but differences induced by fertilizer type may persist for decades. (ii) Crop yields, estimated C inputs (1.5 t ha-1 year-1) with crop residue, microbial bio¬mass C (Cmic, 118 – 150 mg kg-1), microbial biomass N (17 – 20 mg kg-1) and labile C and N pools did not differ significantly between FYM and DYN treatments. However, labile C increased linearly with application rate (R2 = 0.53) from 7 to 11% of Corg. This also applied for labile N (3.5 to 4.9% of Nt). The higher contents of Corg in DYN treatments existed since 1982, when the first sampling was conducted for all individual treatments. Contents of Corg between DYN and FYM treatments con-verged slightly since then. Furthermore, at least 30% of the difference in Corg was located in the passive pool where a treatment effect could be excluded. Therefore, the reported differences in Corg contents existed most likely since the beginning of the experiment and, as a single factor of biodynamic agriculture, application of bio-dynamic preparations had no effect on SOM stocks. (iii) Stocks of SOM, light fraction organic C (LFOC, ρ ≤ 2.0 g cm-3), light fraction organic N and Cmic decreased in the order FYMH > FYML > MSIH, MSIL for all sampling dates in 2008 (March, May, September, December). However, statistical significance of treatment effects differed between the dates, probably due to dif-ferences in the spatial variation throughout the year. The high proportion of LFOC on total Corg stocks (45 – 55%) highlighted the importance of selective preservation of OM as a stabilization mechanism in this sandy Cambisol. The apparent turnover time of LFOC was between 21 and 32 years, which agreed very well with studies with substantially longer vegetation change compared to our study. Overall, both approaches; (I) the combination of incubation, chemical fractionation and simple modelling and (II) the density fractionation; provided complementary information on the partitioning of SOM into pools of different stability. The density fractionation showed that differences in Corg stocks between FYM and MSI treatments were mainly located in the light fraction, i.e. induced by higher recalcitrance of the organic input in the FYM treatments. Moreover, the use of the combination of biological, chemical and mathematical methods indicated that effects of fertilizer rate on total Corg and Nt stocks may be short-lived, but that the effect of fertilizer type may persist for longer time spans in the sandy Cambisol.

Effects of tillage on processes of organic matter sequestration

To increase the organic matter (OM) content in the soil is one main goal in arable soil management. The adoption of tillage systems with reduced tillage depth and/or frequency (reduced tillage) or of no-tillage was found to increase the concentration of soil OM compared to conventional tillage (CT; ploughing to 20-30 cm). However, the underlying processes are not yet clear and are discussed contradictorily. So far, few investigations were conducted on tillage systems with a shallow tillage depth (minimum tillage = MT; maximum tillage depth of 10 cm). A better understanding of the interactions between MT implementation and changes in OM transformation in soils is essential in order to evaluate the possible contribution of MT to a sustainable management of arable soils. The objectives of the present thesis were (i) to compare OM concentrations, microbial biomass, water-stable aggregates, and particulate OM (POM) between CT and MT soils, (ii) to estimate the temporal variability of water-stable aggregate size classes occurring in the field and the dynamics of macroaggregate (>250 µm) formation and disruption under controlled conditions, (iii) to investigate whether a lower disruption or a higher formation rate accounts for a higher occurrence of macroaggregates under MT compared to CT, (iv) to determine which fraction is the major agent for storing the surplus of OM found under MT compared to CT, and (v) to observe the early OM transformation after residue incorporation in different tillage systems simulated. Two experimental sites (Garte-Süd and Hohes Feld) near Göttingen, Germany, were investigated. Soil type of both sites was a Haplic Luvisol. Since about 40 years, both sites receive MT by a rotary harrow (to 5-8 cm depth) and CT by a plough (to 25 cm depth). Surface soils (0-5 cm) and subsoils (10-20 cm) of two sampling dates (after fallow and directly after tillage) were investigated for concentrations of organic C (Corg) and total N (N), different water-stable aggregate size classes, different density fractions (for the sampling date after fallow only), microbial biomass, and for biochemically stabilized Corg and N (by acid hydrolysis; for the sampling date after tillage only). In addition, two laboratory incubations were performed under controlled conditions: Firstly, MT and CT soils were incubated (28 days at 22°C) as bulk soil and with destroyed macroaggregates in order to estimate the importance of macroaggregates for the physical protection of the very labile OM against mineralization. Secondly, in a microcosm experiment simulating MT and CT systems with soil <250 µm and with 15N and 13C labelled maize straw incorporated to different depths, the mineralization, the formation of new macroaggregates, and the partitioning of the recently added C and N were followed (28 days at 15°C). Forty years of MT regime led to higher concentrations of microbial biomass and of Corg and N compared to CT, especially in the surface soil. After fallow and directly after tillage, a higher proportion of water-stable macroaggregates rich in OM was found in the MT (36% and 66%, respectively) than in the CT (19% and 47%, respectively) surface soils of both sites (data shown are of the site Garte-Süd only). The subsoils followed the same trend. For the sampling date after fallow, no differences in the POM fractions were found but there was more OM associated to the mineral fraction detected in the MT soils. A large temporal variability was observed for the abundance of macroaggregates. In the field and in the microcosm simulations, macroaggregates were found to have a higher formation rate after the incorporation of residues under MT than under CT. Thus, the lower occurrence of macroaggregates in CT soils cannot be attributed to a higher disruption but to a lower formation rate. A higher rate of macroaggregate formation in MT soils may be due to (i) the higher concentrated input of residues in the surface soil and/or (ii) a higher abundance of fungal biomass in contrast to CT soils. Overall, as a location of storage of the surplus of OM detected under MT compared to CT, water-stable macroaggregates were found to play a key role. In the incubation experiment, macroaggregates were not found to protect the very labile OM against mineralization. Anyway, the surplus of OM detected after tillage in the MT soil was biochemically degradable. MT simulations in the microcosm experiment showed a lower specific respiration and a less efficient translocation of recently added residues than the CT simulations. Differences in the early processes of OM translocation between CT and MT simulations were attributed to a higher residue to soil ratio and to a higher proportion of fungal biomass in the MT simulations. Overall, MT was found to have several beneficial effects on the soil structure and on the storage of OM, especially in the surface soil. Furthermore, it was concluded that the high concentration of residues in the surface soil of MT may alter the processes of storage and decomposition of OM. In further investigations, especially analysis of the residue-soil-interface and of effects of the depth of residue incorporation should be emphasised. Moreover, further evidence is needed on differences in the microbial community between CT and MT soils.

Mikrobielle Nutzung von Ernteresten in Bodensäulen und Litterbags

Die vorliegende Arbeit untersuchte die Einflüsse der Bodenart und Einarbeitungstiefe von Streu auf die mikrobielle Nutzung und ihren Abbau. Anhand einer Kohlenstoffsequestrierung wurde die Verlagerung streubürtigen Kohlenstoffes in die Fraktionen CO2-C, SOC, extrahierbaren Kohlenstoff, Cmik und POM-C betrachtet. Aufgrund der Analyse der δ13C-CO2 Werte der Bodenrespiration, im Rahmen der Sequestrierung des streubürtigen Kohlenstoffes, war der Anteil der streubürtigen Bodenrespiration und somit die gesamte, zu erwartende Bodenrespiration bekannt. Durch die, bei der Kohlenstoffsequestrierung, ermittelten Werte konnte eine Plausibilitätsprüfung an vier Methoden zur Erfassung der Bodenrespiration, auf ihre Genauigkeit und mögliche Artefakte hin, durchgeführt werden. Des Weiteren wurden in einem anschließenden Freilandversuch unter subtropischen Bedingungen die Einflüsse verschiedener Dünger und Feldfrüchte, in Abhängigkeit der Streuqualität, auf den Streuabbau und die mikrobielle Besiedelung hin untersucht. Im ersten Versuch (Kapitel 3), wurde anhand eines Säulenversuches der Einfluss der Einarbeitungstiefe, in Anhängigkeit der Bodenart, auf den Streuabbau untersucht. Dieses ist von großer Bedeutung, da auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen Streu und so genannte "Grüne Dünger" durch den Einsatz unterschiedlicher Bodenbearbeitungssysteme, wie z.B. der Kreiselegge oder dem Wendepflug, in unterschiedliche Tiefen eingearbeitet werden. Die Verlagerung streubürtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes per Pilzhyphen, über eine Distanz von bis zu 20 cm wurde innerhalb dieser Arbeit das erste Mal gezeigt. Bisherige Studien zeigten einzig einen Transport von streubürtigem Kohlenstoff per Pilzhyphen, über eine kurze Distanz von der Detritussphäre in den angrenzenden Boden. Der höhere Anteil streubürtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes innerhalb der von der Streuschicht weiter entfernten Schichten im sandigen Boden, im Vergleich zum lehmigen Boden zeigte, dass das feine Porenvolumen des lehmigen Bodens den Transport Streubürtigen Kohlenstoffes per Pilzhyphen grundsätzlich behindert. Diese Annahme wurde durch die stärkere Abnahme des Anteils streubürtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes, mit zunehmender Entfernung zur Streuschicht, im lehmigen Boden im Vergleich zum sandigen Boden unterstützt. Es ist davon auszugehen, dass der sandige Boden zusätzlich durch die höhere Porosität eine erhöhte Sauerstoffdurchlässigkeit und somit, in den tieferen Schichten bessere Wachstumsbedingungen für Mikroorganismen bietet als der lehmige Boden. Durch die Ausbreitung substratbürtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes wurde im sandigen Boden mehr streubürtiger Kohlenstoff durch Mikroorganismen inkorporiert als im lehmigen Boden. Ein weiterer Grund für die geringere Verlagerung von streubürtigem Kohlenstoff in die mikrobielle Biomasse des lehmigen Bodens ist wahrscheinlich der bessere physikalische Schutz durch den höheren Tonanteil. Durch die Einarbeitung der Streu stieg in allen Ansätzen der Gehalt an Ergosterol, welcher ein wesentlicher Indikator für die Präsenz saprotropher Pilze ist. Besonders stark ausgeprägt war der Anstieg des Ergosterolgehaltes, sowie des Ergosterol / mikrobielle Biomasse C – Quotienten, wenn Streu in die untere Schicht (15 - 20 cm) ein-gearbeitet wurde. Diese tiefenspezifischen Unterschiede wurden bisher in noch keinem weiteren Versuch beobachtet und können auf die Entwicklung unterschiedlicher pilzlicher Gemeinschaften zurück zu führen sein. Es ist jedoch wahrscheinlicher, dass pilzliche Nekromasse in den oberen Bodenschichten schneller umgesetzt wird und somit bei der Ergosterolbestimmung nicht mit erfasst wird. Da der Umsatz der pilzlichen Nekromasse im porösen sandigen Boden, aufgrund der höheren Sauerstoffverfügbarkeit und des geringeren physikalischen Schutzes, vermutlich höher ist als im lehmigen Boden, wird diese Annahme durch den im sandigen Boden geringeren Gehalt an mikrobiellen Kohlenstoff unterstützt. Wie erwartet, überstieg die Mineralisation der Streu im sandigen Boden die der im lehmigen Boden. Jedoch anders als erwartet, unterschied sich die Mineralisation in Abhängigkeit der Einarbeitungstiefe, mit einer erhöhten Mineralisation bei Einarbeitung der Streu in 0 - 5 cm Tiefe, einzig im sandigen Boden. Die Berechnung des Ertragskoeffizienten zeigte, dass die Substratsnutzungseffizienz der Mikroorganismen im sandigen Boden signifikant geringer war als die im lehmigen Boden. Die Zugabe von Streu führte in beiden Böden, verstärkt jedoch im lehmigen Boden, zu einem positiven Priming Effekt, der in beiden Bö-den stärker ausgeprägt war, als Streu in 0–5 cm Tiefe eingearbeitet wurde. Trotz Abnahme der SOC-bürtigen mikrobiellen Biomasse stieg die Mineralisation des SOC stark an. Es ist anzunehmen, dass extrazelluläre Enzyme wie Cellulase und Lignin modifizierende Enzy-me, produziert von saprotrophen Pilzen, zum Abbau von Cellolose und Lignin der Streu, zum Teil sehr effizient SOC abbauen. Im zweiten Versuch (Kapitel 4) wurde anhand des gleichen Säulenversuches (Versuch 1; Kapitel 3) der Einfluss der Entfernung von CO2-hot-spots im Boden zur Bodenoberfläche, in Abhängigkeit der Bodenart, auf vier verschiedene Methoden zur Erfassung der Bodenrespiration betrachtet. Zusätzlich wurde durch eine Plausibilitätsprüfung anhand der Kohlenstoffbilanz, basierend auf der in Versuch 1 durchgeführten Kohlenstoffsequestrierung, die Genauigkeit der vier Methoden in Abhängigkeit der Bodenart überprüft. Für beide Ansätze mit sandigem Boden zeigen IR und PAS eine deutliche Überschätzung der mit NaOH und GC bestimmten Bodenrespiration. Die Überschätzung durch IR ist dabei auf die durch die dynamische Haube verursachten Turbulenzen und deren Auswirkungen auf den porösen sandigen Boden zurück zu führen. Bei geringen Respirationsraten, wie bei der Kontrolle, zeigt die Messung mittels IR trotz Turbulenzen, verursacht durch den Ventilator der Haube, keine Überschätzung. Die Überschätzung durch PAS hingegen kann nicht auf Turbulenzen, verursacht durch die dynamische Haube, zurück geführt werden, da bei den Analysen mit PAS und GC identische Hauben, höher und größer als bei IR, eingesetzt wurden und die Bodenrespiration durch GC nicht überschätzt wurde. Im Gegensatz zu beiden sandigen Ansätzen überschätzt IR die Bodenrespiration im lehmigen Boden nicht. NaOH hingegen unterschätzt die Bodenrespiration, wenn Streu in 15-20 cm Tiefe des lehmigen Bodens eingearbeitet ist. Dieses ist dadurch zu erklären, dass, bedingt durch die geringere Porosität sowie das höhere Wasserhaltevermögen und dem daraus resultierenden geringeren Luft gefüllten Porenvolumen, die Diffusion von CO2 im lehmigen Boden langsamer ist als im sandigen Boden. Nach Absorption des CO2 der Haubenluft diffundiert das CO2 des CO2-hot-spots in 15-20 cm Tiefe, entlang des Diffusionsgradienten, aufgrund des Diffusionswiderstandes in lehmigen Boden langsamer zur Oberfläche als im sandigen Boden oder wenn der CO2-hot-spot direkt unter der Bodenoberfläche liegt. Da bei der Messung mit der dynamischen Haube diese nur kurz auf der Fläche verbleibt, beeinflusst der Diffusionsgradient diese Messungen nicht. Hinzukommt, dass bei den Messsystemen, die in Kombination mit der dynamischen Haube eingesetzt werden, im Gegensatz zur Absorption durch Lauge keine CO2 Abreicherung stattfindet und die Diffusion von CO2 aus dem Boden über lange Zeit bis zu hohen CO2 Konzentration in der Haube linear bleibt. Alle drei mit einer dynamischen Haube kombinierten Methoden zeigen mit Korrelations-koeffizienten zwischen 0,90 und 0,93 starke Korrelationen mit NaOH. Während PAS die Bodenrespiration im Verhältnis zu NaOH immer überschätzt, tritt eine Überschätzung durch GC nur bei Mineralisationsraten unter 500 mg m-2 h-1 und für IR bei Mineralisations-raten über 40 mg m-2 h-1 ein. Die Plausibilitätsprüfung zeigt, dass für sandigen Boden, mit NaOH und GC eine sehr exakte Wiederfindung von Kohlenstoff erreicht wird, wohingegen IR und PAS in der Wiederfindung von Kohlenstoff bei deutlich über 100 % liegen. Für den lehmigen Boden hingegen ist nach Entfernung der CO2-hot-spots zur Bodenoberfläche zu differenzieren. Befindet sich der CO2-hot-spot direkt unter der Bodenoberfläche ist die Wiederfindung von Kohlenstoff für NaOH, GC und IR sehr exakt. Befindet sich der CO2-hot-spot jedoch in 15-20 cm Tiefe, ist die Wiederfindung des Kohlenstoffes durch NaOH deutlich unter 100 %. Die Wiederfindung durch PAS liegt sowohl für den sandigen als auch für den lehmigen Boden immer deutlich über 100 %. Im dritten Versuch (Kapitel 5), wurde anhand eines Litterbag-Versuches im Norden des Omans, der Einfluss verschiedener Dünger und Feldfrüchte auf den Abbau von Streu auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen in Abhängigkeit der Streuqualität betrachtet. Bei dem Großteil bisheriger Streuabbauversuche, unter gemäßigten und subtropischen Klimaten, stand der Abbau von Streu im Wald im Fokus der Betrachtung. Die wenigen Versuche zum Streuabbau auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen beschränken sich auf die gemäßigten Klimate. Wohingegen der Abbau von Streu, sowie der Einfluss von Dünger und Feldfrucht unter subtropischen Bedingungen, zum ersten mal mit der vorliegenden Arbeit fokussiert wurde. Der Verlust an organischem Material war verglichen mit Versuchen un-ter gemäßigten Klimaten, bei allen vier Streuarten, generell hoch. Der höhere Abbau von Luzernen- und Maisstreu im Vergleich zu Raps- und Weizenstreu ist auf Unterschiede der Streuqualität zurückzuführen. Neben der Verwertbarkeit durch Mikroorganismen beeinflusst die Streuqualität zusätzlich die "Schmackhaftigkeit" der Streu für Organismen der Mesofauna. Wodurch ein selektiver Transport und/oder Grazing von Mikroorganismen stattfindet. Der geringere Abbau der Luzernenstreu verglichen mit Maisstreu jedoch ist nicht auf die Streuqualität sondern auf die geringere mikrobielle Besiedelung der Luzernenstreu während der Versuchszeit zurückzuführen. Der Unterschied im Grad der mikrobiellen Besiedelung kann durch die erhobenen Daten nicht erklärt werden. Es ist jedoch davon auszugehen, dass Leguminosen Substanzen wie z.B. Polyphenole enthalten, welche die mikrobielle Biomasse und im Besonderen die pilzliche Biomasse in beachtlichem Umfang inhibitieren. Ebenso wenig ist der höhere Abbau von Weizenstreu verglichen mit Rapsstreu durch die Streuqualität zu begründen. Eine mögliche Erklärung für den geringeren Abbau der Rapsstreu kann ihr hoher Aluminium Gehalt sein. Es ist jedoch wahrscheinlicher, dass die Rapsstreu organische Substanzen wie Glucosinolate enthält, welche den mikrobiellen Streuabbau inhibitieren. Während der Hemicellulosegehalt am Ende des Versuches nicht durch die Streuqualität beeinflusst war, zeigten Cellulose und Lignin quali-tätsabhängige Effekte. Der stärkere Abbau von Cellulose bei Luzernen- und Maisstreu ist auf den anfänglich höheren Stickstoffgehalt zurückzuführen, wodurch die Produktion und Aktivität von Cellulose degradierenden Enzymen, wie Exo-Cellulase, Endo-Cellulase und Xylanase, anstieg. Es ist davon auszugehen, dass die Differenzen im Celluloseabbau von Luzernen- und Maisstreu im Vergleich zu Raps- und Weizenstreu, neben Unterschieden im anfänglichen Stickstoffgehalt, auf den höheren Schutz von Cellulose durch Lignin in Raps- und Weizenstreu zurückzuführen sind. Während der initial geringe Stickstoffgehalt den Ligninabbau in Raps- und Weizenstreu unterstützt, ist die relative Anreicherung von Lignin in Luzernen- und Maisstreu hingegen auf den initial hohen Stickstoffgehalt zurückzuführen. Dem entgegen hat die Zusammensetzung weiterer Nährstoffe einen sehr geringen Effekt. Es ist jedoch möglich, dass stärkere Effekte durch den Eintrag von Boden in die Litterbags durch Organismen der Mesofauna, Wurzelwachstum oder physikalische Verlagerung überdeckt werden. Während unter organische Düngung, die pilzliche Biomasse ansteigt, fördert der leicht verfügbare Stickstoff der mineralischen Düngung die Bildung bakterieller Biomasse. Der höher Gehalt an pilzlicher Biomasse unter organischer Düngung zeigte keinen generellen Effekt auf den Abbau von Kohlenstoff. Er führte jedoch zu einer Veränderung in der Streuzusammensetzung. Die verringerte Abnahme bzw. verstärkte Zunahme der Nährstoffgehalte bei organischer Düngung ist durch den Eintrag dünger-bürtiger Nährstoffe, im Besonderen durch die verstärkte Bildung pilzlicher Hyphen in die Litterbags hinein, zu erklären. Trotz höherer Gehalte an pilzlicher Biomasse war der Ligningehalt am Ende des Versuches unter organischer Düngung höher als unter mineralischer Düngung. Diese ist auf den Eintrag düngerbürtiger Pilze zurückzuführen, welche eine geringere Lignindegradierungseffizienz aufweisen. Der Einfluss der Feldfrucht auf den Streuabbau äußert sich durch höhere Gehalte mikrobieller und im Besonderen pilzlicher Biomasse, und durch geringere Gehalte an N, P, Ca, Na und K in, im Litterbag verbleiben-der Streu, unter dem Anbau von Mohrrüben. Der Anstieg der pilzlichen Biomasse führt, ebenso wie bei der organischen Düngung zu keinem generellen Anstieg der Kohlenstoffdegradation, zeigt jedoch einen selektiven Effekt auf den Abbau von Cellulose. Der Einfluss, sowohl auf die mikrobielle Biomasse, als auch auf den Nährstoffgehalt, zeigt die Bedeutung der Unterschiede im Wurzelwachstum, der Rhizodeposition sowie des Nährstoffbedarfs in Abhängigkeit der Feldfrucht. Trotz großer Unterschiede der Streuarten im anfänglichen Gehalt mikrobieller Biomasse war dieser am Ende des Versuches für alle Streuarten identisch. Dieses war Folge eines starken Anstiegs der pilzlichen Biomasse bei Luzernen- und Maisstreu sowie einer Abnahme der pilzlichen Biomasse bei Raps- und Weizenstreu, welche zuvor noch nicht beobachtet wurde. Dieses macht den Einfluss der anfänglichen mikrobiellen Biomasse auf deren Entwicklung während des Streuabbauprozesses im Boden deutlich. Es ist anzunehmen, dass ein Teil der anfänglichen pilzlichen Biomasse der Raps- und Weizenstreu, welche sich unter gemäßigten Klimaten entwickelte, unter subtropischen Bedingungen nicht überlebensfähig war. Generell war der Streuabbau durch Pilze dominiert. Es zeigte sich jedoch, dass Unterschiede im Pflanzenmaterial einen Einfluss auf die bakterielle Biomasse hatten, Unterschiede in Düngung und Feldfrucht hingegen die pilzliche Biomasse und die bakterielle Biomasse beeinflussten.

Carbon and nitrogen emissions from stored manure and cropped fields in irrigated mountain oases of Oman

Little is known about gaseous carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) emissions from traditional terrace agriculture in irrigated high mountain agroecosystems of the subtropics. In an effort towards filling this knowledge gap measurements of carbon dioxide (CO_2), methane (CH_4), ammonia (NH_3) and dinitrous oxide (N_2O) were taken with a mobile photoacoustic infrared multi-gas monitor on manure-filled PE-fibre storage bags and on flood-irrigated untilled and tilled fields in three mountain oases of the northen Omani Al Jabal al Akhdar mountains. During typical 9-11 day irrigation cycles of March, August and September 2006 soil volumetric moisture contents of fields dominated by fodder wheat, barley, oats and pomegranate ranged from 46-23%. While manure incorporation after application effectively reduced gaseous N losses, prolonged storage of manure in heaps or in PE-fibre bags caused large losses of C and N. Given the large irrigation-related turnover of organic C, sustainable agricultural productivity of oasis agriculture in Oman seems to require the integration of livestock which allows for several applications of manure per year at individual rates of 20 t dry matter ha^−1.