Geología de las ultramafitas pre-andinas de Tapo y Acobamba, Tarma, en la Cordillera Oriental de Perú

Ultramafic rocks occur scattered along a 300 km long NNW-SSE trending belt, parallel to the central Peruvian Andes in the Cordillera Oriental, from Tarma (Junín Dept.) to Huancapallac and Tingo María (Huánuco Dept.). The Tarma occurrences (Tapo and Acobamba) are dealt with here, as the first step of a broader research. The Tapo massif comprises strongly tectonised serpentinites with scarce peridotitic relics, amphibolites and podiform chromitites. It was overthrust on early Carboniferous metasedimentary rocks of the Andean basement (Ambo Group), and it shows evidences of a pre-Andean deformational history, not observed in the Ambo Group; the basal thrust plane is folded by the Andean tectonics. The two smaller Acobamba occurrences are also allochtonous and show similar tectonic features. Major and trace element composition of amphibolites point to a tholeiitic basalt (to picrobasalt) protolith, compatible with an ocean-ridge or ocean-island environment. Small podiform chromitite lenses and chromite disseminations also occur; they are strongly deformed, metamorphosed and overprinted by hydrothermal alteration related to deformation, and were the subject of small scale mining. The ores comprise mainly chromite, ferritchromite, spinel, magnetite, ilmenite and scarce sulphides, as well as the secondary minerals stichtite and nimite. Results of this work exclude current interpretations of the Tarma ultramafites as autochtonous igneous intrusives, and point to a new interpretation for their emplacement.

Análisis de elementos de madera reforzados con materiales compuestos

Gran parte del patrimonio construido cuenta con edificios cuya estructura está compuesta por elementos de madera. El volumen económico que supone el mantenimiento y renovación de dicho patrimonio es considerable, por ello, es de especial interés el estudio de las diferentes técnicas de refuerzo aplicables a este tipo de estructuras. Las estructuras de madera han sido tradicionalmente reforzadas con piezas del mismo material, aumentando la sección de los elementos dañados, o con acero. La aparición de los materiales compuestos de polímeros reforzados con fibras, y su progresiva aplicación en obras de construcción, hizo que a principios de la década de los noventa se comenzara a aplicar este material en refuerzos de estructuras de madera (Puente de Sins, 1992). La madera es un material natural con una excelente relación entre sus características mecánicas y su peso. Con el uso de materiales compuestos como refuerzo ésta característica se mantiene. En cuanto a su modelo constitutivo, se admite un comportamiento elástico lineal a tracción paralela a la fibra hasta la rotura, mientras que a compresión, se considera un comportamiento lineal elástico inicial, seguido de un tramo plástico. En vigas de madera aserrada sometidas a flexión predomina el modo de fallo por tracción localizándose la fractura frecuentemente en el canto inferior. Los FRP tienen un comportamiento elástico lineal a tracción hasta la rotura y cuentan con excelentes propiedades mecánicas en relación a su peso y volumen. Si se refuerza la viga por el canto inferior se aumentará su capacidad de absorber tracciones y por tanto, es previsible que se produzca un incremento en la capacidad de carga, así como un aumento de ductilidad. En este trabajo se analizan los beneficios que aportan distintos sistemas de refuerzos de materiales compuestos. El objetivo es contribuir al conocimiento de esta técnica para la recuperación o aumento de las propiedades resistentes de elementos de madera sometidos a flexión. Se ha llevado a cabo un estudio basado en datos obtenidos experimentalmente mediante el ensayo a flexión de vigas de madera de pino silvestre reforzadas con materiales compuestos. Las fibras que componen los tejidos utilizados para la ejecución de los refuerzos son de basalto y de carbono. En el caso de los compuestos de fibra de basalto se aplican en distintos gramajes, y los de carbono en tejido unidireccional y bidireccional. Se analiza el comportamiento de las vigas según las variables de refuerzo aplicadas y se comparan con los resultados de vigas ensayadas sin reforzar. Además se comprueba el ajuste del modelo de cálculo no lineal aplicado para predecir la carga de rotura de cada viga reforzada. Con este trabajo queda demostrado el buen funcionamiento del FRP de fibra de basalto aplicado en el refuerzo de vigas de madera y de los tejidos de carbono bidireccionales con respecto a los unidireccionales. ABSTRACT Many of the buildings of the built heritage include a structure composed by timber elements. The economic volume involved in the maintenance and renewal of this built heritage is considerable, therefore, the study of the different reinforcement techniques applicable to this type of structure is of special interest. The wooden structures have traditionally been reinforced either with steel or with pieces of the same material, increasing the section of the damaged parts. The emergence of polymer composites reinforced with fibers, and their progressive use in construction, started to be applied as reinforcement in timber structures at the beginning of the nineties decade in the 20th century (Sins Bridge, 1992). Wood is a natural material with an excellent ratio between its mechanic characteristics and its weight. This feature is maintained with the use of composites as reinforcement. In terms of its constitutive model, linear elastic behavior parallel to the fiber up to fracture is admitted when subjected to tensile stress, while under compression, an initial linear elastic behavior, followed by a section plasticizing, is considered. In sawn timber beams subjected to bending, the predominant failure is mainly due to tensile stress; and frequently the fracture is located at the beam lower face. The FRP have a linear elastic behavior until fracture occurs, and have excellent mechanical properties in relation to their weight and volume. If the beam is reinforced by its lower face, its capacity to absorb tensile stresses will increase, and therefore, an increase in its carrying capacity is likely to be produced, as well as an increase in ductility. This work analyzes the benefits different reinforcement systems of composite materials provide, with the aim of contributing to the knowledge of this technique for recovering or increasing the strength properties of timber elements subjected to bending loads. It is a study based on data obtained experimentally using bending tests of pine timber beams reinforced with composite materials. Fibers used for the execution of the reinforcement are basalt and carbon. Basalt fiber composites are applied in different grammages, whereas with carbon composites, unidirectional and bidirectional fabrics are used. The behavior of the beams was analyzed regarding the reinforcement variables applied, and the results are compared with those of the tested beams without reinforcement. Furthermore it has been proved adjunting the nonlinear calculation model applied to predict the failure load of each reinforced beam. This work proves the good behavior of fiber reinforce plastic (FRP) with basalt fiber when applied to timber beams, and that of bidirectional carbon fabrics as opposed to the unidirectional ones.

Study of the increase in bending stiffness on timber beams reinforced with composite materials

It is common to find structures that need to be reinforced due to deterioration or because the function of the building changes. The economic cost involved in these forms of interventions is considerable. Therefore, it is interesting to progress in the existing strengthening techniques and the study of new reinforcement systems. This paper analyses the behaviour of timber beams reinforced with carbon and basalt fiber composite materials. The main objective of this study is to test the stiffness increase produced by the carbon and basalt FRP on reinforced beams. The results show the stiffness increase produced by the different types of reinforcement.

A novel microbial habitat in the mid-ocean ridge subseafloor

The subseafloor at the mid-ocean ridge is predicted to be an excellent microbial habitat, because there is abundant space, fluid flow, and geochemical energy in the porous, hydrothermally influenced oceanic crust. These characteristics also make it a good analog for potential subsurface extraterrestrial habitats. Subseafloor environments created by the mixing of hot hydrothermal fluids and seawater are predicted to be particularly energy-rich, and hyperthermophilic microorganisms that broadly reflect such predictions are ejected from these systems in low-temperature (≈15°C), basalt-hosted diffuse effluents. Seven hyperthermophilic heterotrophs isolated from low-temperature diffuse fluids exiting the basaltic crust in and near two hydrothermal vent fields on the Endeavour Segment, Juan de Fuca Ridge, were compared phylogenetically and physiologically to six similarly enriched hyperthermophiles from samples associated with seafloor metal sulfide structures. The 13 organisms fell into four distinct groups: one group of two organisms corresponding to the genus Pyrococcus and three groups corresponding to the genus Thermococcus. Of these three groups, one was composed solely of sulfide-derived organisms, and the other two related groups were composed of subseafloor organisms. There was no evidence of restricted exchange of organisms between sulfide and subseafloor habitats, and therefore this phylogenetic distinction indicates a selective force operating between the two habitats. Hypotheses regarding the habitat differences were generated through comparison of the physiology of the two groups of hyperthermophiles; some potential differences between these habitats include fluid flow stability, metal ion concentrations, and sources of complex organic matter.

Interisland and interarchipelago transfer of stone tools in prehistoric Polynesia.

Tracing interisland and interarchipelago movements of people and artifacts in prehistoric Polynesia has posed a challenge to archaeologists due to the lack of pottery and obsidian, two materials most readily used in studies of prehistoric trade or exchange. Here we report the application of nondestructive energy-dispersive x-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis to the sourcing of Polynesian artifacts made from basalt, one of the most ubiquitous materials in Polynesian archaeological sites. We have compared excavated and surface-collected basalt adzes and adze flakes from two sites in Samoa (site AS-13-1) and the Cook Islands (site MAN-44), with source basalts from known prehistoric quarries in these archipelagoes. In both cases, we are able to demonstrate the importing of basalt adzes from Tutuila Island, a distance of 100 km to Ofu Island, and of 1600 km to Mangaia Island. These findings are of considerable significance for Polynesian prehistory, as they demonstrate the movement of objects not only between islands in the same group (where communities were culturally and linguistically related) but also between distant island groups. Further applications of EDXRF analysis should greatly aid archaeologists in their efforts to reconstruct ancient trade and exchange networks, not only in Polynesia but also in other regions where basalt was a major material for artifact production.

Migração de solutos em basalto fraturado: quantificação experimental em laboratório e validação matemática

A avaliação do risco a contaminação e a escolha de técnicas de remediação de poluentes em aquíferos fraturados depende da quantificação dos fenômenos envolvidos no transporte de solutos. A geometria da fratura, usualmente caracterizada pela abertura, é o principal parâmetro que indiretamente controla o transporte nos aquíferos fraturados. A simplificação mais comum desse problema é assumir que as fraturas são um par de placas planas e paralelas, isto é, com uma abertura constante. No entanto, por causa do limitado número de trabalhos experimentais, não está esclarecida a adequabilidade do uso de uma abertura constante para simular o transporte conservativo em fraturas do Aquífero Serra Geral (ASG), Brasil. O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar a influência da abertura de uma fratura natural do Aquífero Serra Geral sob o transporte conservativo de solutos. Uma amostra natural de basalto fraturado foi usada em um experimento hidráulico e de transporte de um traçador conservativo (escala de laboratório). O campo de abertura foi medido usando a técnica avançada, de alta resolução e tridimensional, chamada microtomografia computadorizada de raios-X. A concentração de traçador medida foi utilizada para validar uma solução analítica unidimensional da Equação de Advecção-dispersão (ADE). O desemprenho do ajuste da ADE às curvas de passagem experimentais foi avaliado para quatro diferentes tipos de aberturas constantes. Os resultados mostraram que o escoamento de água e o transporte de contaminantes pode ocorrer através de fraturas micrométricas, ocasionando, eventualmente, a contaminação do ASG. A abertura de balanço de massa é a única que pode ser chamada propriamente de \"abertura equivalente\". O uso de aberturas constantes na ADE não permitiu representar completamente o formato das curvas de passagem porque o campo de velocidade não é uniforme e intrinsicamente bidimensional. Portanto, na simulação do transporte deve-se incorporar a heterogeneidade da abertura da fratura.

Geologia e petrologia da ilha de São Sebastião (Estado de São Paulo)

A ilha de São Sebastião consta principalmente de rochas alcalinas que formam um maciço de 300 km2 aproximadamente, constituindo o terceiro em área no Brasil. Apresenta-se em um "stock" alongado segundo NE-SW, encaixado em estruturas de gnais. As formações geológicas encontradas consistem em 1 - Granitos e Gnais (ARQUEANO), 2 - Eruptivas básicas (RÉTICO), 3 - Eruptivas alcalinas (JURÁSSICO) e 4 - Depósitos recentes (HOLOCENO). O método de estudo empregado foi o petrográfico e a coluna geológica estabelecida em base de dados petrográficos, tectônicos e fisiográficos. O arqueano é determinado por definição dos seus tipos petrográficos (1- gnais facoidal, 2- oligoclásio-gnais, 3- hornblenda-gnais, 4- biotita-gnais e 5- microlina-granito) idênticos aos concorrentes no considerado arqueano do Brasil meridional. O triássico (rético) é conferido às rochas básicas (diabásios e basaltos) pela sua semelhança tectônica e petrográfica com as congêneres que cortam de maneira semelhante o arqueano no continente. A "mise-en-place" das eruptivas alcalinas (1- Nordmarkito, 2- Biotita-pulaskito, 3- Pulaskito, 4- Nefelina-sienito, 5- Foiaito, 6- Essexito-foiaito, 7- Essexito e 8- Teralito) pode ser considerada jurássica devido suas relações com as eruptivas básicas referidas réticas, pois na praia do Bonete (foto 14) observa-se um dique de nordmarkito cortando outro de diabásio. As eruptivas quartzo-dioríticas (quartzo-microdiorito e quartzo-andesito) cortam as alcalinas no cume do Zabumba, indicando sua idade mais moderna que estas. Além deste fato, preenchem linhas de fraturas tectônicas recentes, como as falhas ao longo do canal de São Sebastião, indicando que a topografia deveria ser a mesma que a atual para permitir rios efusivos ao nível do canal ou que pelo menos toda a zona de extrusão estivesse, como hoje está, em superfície. Os depósitos aluviais marinhos e continentais são considerados recentes, (holocênicos) pelo favor da topografia onde se dispõe, ocupando o fundo os vales e os bordos do atual modelado costeiro, idade esta conferida em base fisiográfica. A tectônica que afetou a ilha de São Sebastião participa da que atuou em todo o litoral meridional brasileiro. Pode-se distinguir duas fases distintas: na primeira ocorreram as erupções básicas e as alcalinas subsidiárias e na segunda deram-se os falhamentos escalonados em blocos basculados para NW, com as fraturas de tensão preenchidas pelas eruptivas quartzo-dioríticas. Toda a atividade tectônica foi regulada pela direção NE-SW privilegiada da estrutura do arqueano, correspondente a antigos eixos dos dobramentos laurencianos e huronianos. A geomorfologia da ilha consta de uma antiga superfície de erosão rematada até a senilidade, - o peneplano cretáceo, hoje reduzida às cristas culminares do maciço alcalino e às satélites das estruturas gnáissicas, desnivelada pelo falhamento em blocos e ligeiramente adernada para NW devido ao basculamento. Ao lado desta topografia vestigial existe o modelado atual da ilha caracterizado por uma juventude do estágio evolutivo. Esta escultura foi inaugurada com os últimos levantamentos epirogênicos que ascenderam as eruptivas alcalinas plutônicas a mais de 1.300 m sobre o nível do mar. O modelado costeiro apresenta uma costa típica de submergência com esculturas em rias, no estágio da juventude. A presença de terraceamentos marinhos de abrasão, atualmente elevados cerca de 20 a 30 m, lembra as oscilações epirogênicas ou eustáticas do litoral.

Composition of rocks and minerals from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge 5-7°N

The monograph summarizes geological and metallogenic data on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge obtained during research expeditions of the Geological Institute RAS in 2000-2003. Formation of the earth crust in the region, structure of the rift zone, structure of the newly discovered Bogdanov Fracture Zone, neotectonic deformations, metallogenic peculiarities, prospecting criteria of ocean ore mineralization are under consideration.

Ash layers, hyaloclastite, and alteration of basaltic glass at DSDP Leg 65 Holes

Three types of tephra deposits were recovered on Leg 65 of the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) from three drill sites at the mouth of the Gulf of California: (1) a series of white ash layers at Sites 483, 484, and 485; (2) a layer of plagioclase- phyric sideromelane shards at Site 483; and (3) an indurated, cross-bedded hyaloclastite in Hole 483B. The ash layers in (1) are composed of colorless, fresh rhyolitic glass shards with minor dacitic and rare basaltic shards. These are thought to be derived from explosive volcanoes on the Mexican mainland. Most of the shards in (2) are fresh, but some show marginal to complete alteration to palagonite. The composition of the glass is that of a MORB-type tholeiite, low in Fe and moderately high in Ti, and possibly erupted from off-axis seamounts. Basaltic glass shards occurring in silt about 45 meters above the basement at Site 484 A in the Tamayo Fracture Zone show a distinctly alkalic composition similar to that of the single basement basalt specimen drilled at this site. The hyaloclastite in (3) is made up chiefly of angular sideromelane shards altered to smectite and zeolites (mainly phillipsite) and minor admixtures of terrigenous silt. A very high K and Ba content indicates significant uptake of at least these elements from seawater. Nevertheless, the unusual chemical composition of the underlying massive basalt flow is believed to be reflected in that of the hyaloclastite. This is a powerful argument for interpreting the massive basalt as a surface flow rather than an intrusion. Glass alteration is different in the glassy margins of flows than in thicker glassy pillow rinds. Also, it appears to proceed faster in coarse- than fine-grained sediments.

Stable isotope ratios of interstitial fluids from ODP Leg 110 sites

Delta18O values of pore waters from the northern Barbados accretionary prism range from -0.3 to -3.6? and reflect pervasive reaction of volcanic ash to form smectite within the sedimentary sequence and continued low temperature alteration of basalt in the underlying ocean crust with the overprint of diffusive exchange between water in the sediment pores and the open ocean. Delta D values of pore waters in sediments sampled seaward of the deformation front drop from +5? at the sediment surface to -6? at the deepest levels sampled. These changes may also be related to alteration processes but remain largely enigmatic. Sediment deformation caused by impingement of the Caribbean plate on the Atlantic plate has instigated migration of chemically and isotopically distinct fluid along faults and coarse-grained sedimentary beds; delta18O values of pore waters are also locally affected by thrust stacking which increases diffusive pathlengths and possibly modifies diagenetic reaction rates in Pleistocene sediments. Migrating fluids are distinguished by anomalous delta18O values that are as much as 1? higher than those of surrounding fluids. Uncertainties in hydrogen isotope fractionation resulting from processes occurring under these conditions hinder identification of the hydrogen isotope composition of expelled fluid. Stable isotope analyses of pore waters help constrain the fluid migration history of the accretionary prism by limiting the source of fluids, the paths along which fluid flows, and the timing of faulting and subsequent fluid flow.