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Research with typically developing groups has identified loneliness as a significant predictor of a range of physical and mental health problems. This paper reviews research about loneliness in children and adults with intellectual disability. Although a considerable body of evidence has highlighted the difficulties individuals with intellectual disability have with friendships, there is a relative scarcity of research focused explicitly on loneliness. The available evidence suggests that up to half of those with intellectual disability are chronically lonely, compared with around 15-30% of people in the general population. The cognitive, physical and mental health problems already associated with intellectual disability are likely to be compounded by experiences of chronic loneliness. We argue that people with intellectual disability are highly vulnerable to loneliness and present a theoretical model of vulnerability that comprises three reciprocally influencing domains: social attitudes and expectations; opportunities and experiences; and skill deficits associated with intellectual disability. We propose that societal views which have traditionally devalued and stigmatised those with intellectual disability limit their opportunities for experiencing social and emotional connectedness with others. Individual skill deficits in areas such as communication, self-regulation and social understanding, as well as functional difficulties associated with intellectual disability, also potentially influence the opportunities and experiences of people with intellectual disability, both directly and via multiple layers of the social context. In turn, limited opportunities will entrench particular skill deficits and reinforce negative attitudes towards intellectual disability. Future research about loneliness and intellectual disability needs to address the difficulties of measuring emotional isolation in this population, as well as the possibility that people with intellectual disability may understand, experience and interpret loneliness somewhat differently from others. The model proposed in this paper provides a starting point for developing a more sophisticated understanding of the experience of loneliness for individuals with intellectual disability.

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Purpose: The cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter is one of the most commonly used promoters for expression of transgenes in mammalian cells. The aim of our study was to evaluate the role of methylation and upregulation of the CMV promoter by irradiation and the chemotherapeutic agent cisplatin in vivo using non-invasive fluorescence in vivo imaging. Procedures: Murine fibrosarcoma LPB and mammary carcinoma TS/A cells were stably transfected with plasmids encoding CMV and p21 promoter-driven green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene. Solid TS/A tumors were induced by subcutaneous injection of fluorescent tumor cells, while leg muscles were transiently transfected with plasmid encoding GFP under the control of the CMV promoter. Cells, tumors, and legs were treated either by DNA methylation inhibitor 5-azacytidine, irradiation, or cisplatin. GFP expression was determined using a fluorescence microplate reader in vitro and by non-invasive fluorescence imaging in vivo. Results: Treatment of cells, tumors, and legs with 5-azacytidine (re)activated the CMV promoter. Furthermore, treatment with irradiation or cisplatin resulted in significant upregulation of GFP expression both in vitro and in vivo. Conclusions: Observed alterations in the activity of the CMV promoter limit the usefulness of this widely used promoter as a constitutive promoter. On the other hand, inducibility of CMV promoters can be beneficially used in gene therapy when combined with standard cancer treatment, such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy. © 2010 The Author(s).