The impotence of price controls: failed attempts to constrain pharmaceutical expenditures in Greece.

BACKGROUND: While the prices of pharmaceuticals are relatively low in Greece, expenditure on them is growing more rapidly than almost anywhere else in the European Union. OBJECTIVE: To describe and explain the rise in drug expenditures through decomposition of the increase into the contribution of changes in prices, in volumes and a product-mix effect. METHODS: The decomposition of the growth in pharmaceutical expenditures in Greece over the period 1991-2006 was conducted using data from the largest social insurance fund (IKA) that covers more than 50% of the population. RESULTS: Real drug spending increased by 285%, despite a 58% decrease in the relative price of pharmaceuticals. The increase in expenditure is mainly attributable to a switch to more innovative, but more expensive, pharmaceuticals, indicated by a product-mix residual of 493% in the decomposition. A rising volume of drugs also plays a role, and this is due to an increase in the number of prescriptions issued per doctor visit, rather than an increase in the number of visits or the population size. CONCLUSIONS: Rising pharmaceutical expenditures are strongly determined by physicians' prescribing behaviour, which is not subject to any monitoring and for which there are no incentives to be cost conscious.

Missale ad usum Sancti Cornelii Compendiensis.

Ex-libris "S. Cornelii Compend. Congr. S. Mauri", XVIIe s., f. 1. Compiègne.

The AO comprehensive classification of pediatric long-bone fractures: a web-based multicenter agreement study.

The first AO comprehensive pediatric long-bone fracture classification system has been proposed following a structured path of development and validation with experienced pediatric surgeons. A Web-based multicenter agreement study involving 70 surgeons in 15 clinics and 5 countries was conducted to assess the reliability and accuracy of this classification when used by a wide range of surgeons with various levels of experience. Training was provided at each clinic before the session. Using the Internet, participants could log in at any time and classify 275 supracondylar, radius, and tibia fractures at their own pace. The fracture diagnosis was made following the hierarchy of the classification system using both clinical terminology and codes. kappa coefficients for the single-surgeon diagnosis of epiphyseal, metaphyseal, or diaphyseal fracture type were 0.66, 0.80, and 0.91, respectively. Median accuracy estimates for each bone and type were all greater than 80%. Depending on their experience and specialization, surgeons greatly varied in their ability to classify fractures. Pediatric training and at least 2 years of experience were associated with significant improvement in reliability and accuracy. Kappa coefficients for diagnosis of specific child patterns were 0.51, 0.63, and 0.48 for epiphyseal, metaphyseal, and diaphyseal fractures, respectively. Identified reasons for coding discrepancies were related to different understandings of terminology and definitions, as well as poor quality radiographic images. Results supported some minor adjustments in the coding of fracture type and child patterns. This classification system received wide acceptance and support among the surgeons involved. As long as appropriate training could be performed, the system classification was reliable, especially among surgeons with a minimum of 2 years of clinical experience. We encourage broad-based consultation between surgeons' international societies and the use of this classification system in the context of clinical practice as well as prospectively for clinical studies.

Nuori Neiti Kati Myllymäki 25/1 1973

Kirje 25.1.1973

Governação do Sistema de Saúde em Cabo Verde

A promoção da saúde compreende a acção individual, a acção da comunidade e a acção e o compromisso dos governos na busca de uma vida mais saudável para todos e para cada um» in: Marcos conceituais para a construção Política Nacional de Promoção da Saúde no Brasil.

VOLUMES RELIES du Cabinet des titres : recherches de noblesse, armoriaux, preuves, histoires généalogiques. « Généalogie de la maison de Lorraine, ou genéalogie de la maison d'Alsace et de toutes les branches qui en sont descendues... ».

Blasons peints.

Um Exemplo de Computação Ubíqua em Serviços de Saúde Orientados ao Utente

O Sistema de Saúde está a enfrentar uma mudança necessária, cuja renovação estimula o desenvolvimento de capacidades para conseguir a agilidade, interoperabilidade e eficiência imprescindíveis para melhorar a qualidade e a produtividade, reduzindo os custos associados. O modelo de atendimento centrado no individuo é para onde o sistema de saúde actual converge, conduzindo assim para um processo de atendimento distribuído à saúde . Actualmente a humanidade enfrenta várias dificuldades inerentes a uma sociedade cada vez mais envelhecida, com uma maior predominância de doenças crónicas e dificuldades associadas como a mobilidade. Por exemplo uma das grandes epidemias que afectou e continua a afectar este planeta é a Diabete. De acordo com a Organização Mundial da Saúde, em 2006, havia cerca de 171 milhões de pessoas doentes da diabetes, e esse índice aumenta rapidamente. É estimado que em 2030 esse número dobre. A Diabetes Mellitus ocorre em todo o mundo, mas é mais comum (especialmente a tipo II) nos países mais desenvolvidos. O maior aumento actualmente é esperado na Ásia e na África, onde a maioria dos diabéticos será encontrada em 2030. O aumento do índice de diabetes em países em desenvolvimento segue a tendência de urbanização e mudança de estilos de vida. Neste contexto, o avanço acelerado da tecnologia trouxe novos paradigmas para a área de computação e com eles vários benefícios para a sociedade. O paradigma da computação ubíqua traz inovações para aplicar a computação no dia-a-dia das pessoas sem que possa ser percebida. Para isso, utiliza-se da junção de diversas tecnologias já existentes como, por exemplo, a tecnologia móvel e sensores. Vários benefícios atingem a área médica, trazendo métodos novos e é nesta perspectiva que foi desenvolvido um protótipo de um sistema de monitorização de pacientes de uma forma discreta, com o objectivo de melhorar, rentabilizar e controlar os dados biométricos dos pacientes que sofrem de doenças como a diabetes e tem essa necessidade. O sistema é composto por duas aplicações, uma móvel e outra Web, em que a móvel integra tecnologias como sistema operativo Android que é uma ferramenta importante para desenvolvimento de sistemas dessa natureza. A aplicação Web é fundamental para os profissionais de saúde pois é nela que acompanharão os dados biométricos enviados pelos pacientes. Os pacientes utilizam as duas aplicações para enviar os dados biométricos para serem guardados na base de dados e serem visualizados pelos profissionais de saúde e pelo próprio paciente.

A species delimitation approach in the Trochulus sericeus/hispidus complex reveals two cryptic species within a sharp contact zone.

BACKGROUND: Mitochondrial DNA sequencing increasingly results in the recognition of genetically divergent, but morphologically cryptic lineages. Species delimitation approaches that rely on multiple lines of evidence in areas of co-occurrence are particularly powerful to infer their specific status. We investigated the species boundaries of two cryptic lineages of the land snail genus Trochulus in a contact zone, using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA marker as well as shell morphometrics. RESULTS: Both mitochondrial lineages have a distinct geographical distribution with a small zone of co-occurrence. In the same area, we detected two nuclear genotype clusters, each being highly significantly associated to one mitochondrial lineage. This association however had exceptions: a small number of individuals in the contact zone showed intermediate genotypes (4%) or cytonuclear disequilibrium (12%). Both mitochondrial lineage and nuclear cluster were statistically significant predictors for the shell shape indicating morphological divergence. Nevertheless, the lineage morphospaces largely overlapped (low posterior classification success rate of 69% and 78%, respectively): the two lineages are truly cryptic. CONCLUSION: The integrative approach using multiple lines of evidence supported the hypothesis that the investigated Trochulus lineages are reproductively isolated species. In the small contact area, however, the lineages hybridise to a limited extent. This detection of a hybrid zone adds an instance to the rare reported cases of hybridisation in land snails.