Tumour but not stromal expression of β3 integrin is essential, and is required early, for spontaneous dissemination of bone-metastatic breast cancer.

Although many preclinical studies have implicated β3 integrin receptors (αvβ3 and αIIbβ3) in cancer progression, β3 inhibitors have shown only modest efficacy in patients with advanced solid tumours. The limited efficacy of β3 inhibitors in patients could arise from our incomplete understanding of the precise function of β3 integrin and, consequently, inappropriate clinical application. Data from animal studies are conflicting and indicate heterogeneity with respect to the relative contributions of β3-expressing tumour and stromal cell populations in different cancers. Here we aimed to clarify the function and relative contributions to metastasis of tumour versus stromal β3 integrin in clinically relevant models of spontaneous breast cancer metastasis, with particular emphasis on bone metastasis. We show that stable down-regulation of tumour β3 integrin dramatically impairs spontaneous (but not experimental) metastasis to bone and lung without affecting primary tumour growth in the mammary gland. Unexpectedly, and in contrast to subcutaneous tumours, orthotopic tumour vascularity, growth and spontaneous metastasis were not altered in mice null for β3 integrin. Tumour β3 integrin promoted migration, protease expression and trans-endothelial migration in vitro and increased vascular dissemination in vivo, but was not necessary for bone colonization in experimental metastasis assays. We conclude that tumour, rather than stromal, β3 expression is essential and is required early for efficient spontaneous breast cancer metastasis to bone and soft tissues. Accordingly, differential gene expression analysis in cohorts of breast cancer patients showed a strong association between high β3 expression, early metastasis and shorter disease-free survival in patients with oestrogen receptor-negative tumours. We propose that β3 inhibitors may be more efficacious if used in a neoadjuvant setting, rather than after metastases are established. Copyright © 2014 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Self-assembled multimicellar vesicles via complexation of a rigid conjugated polymer with an amphiphilic block copolymer

A viable method of encapsulating block copolymer micelles inside vesicles using a conjugated polymer is reported in this study. Self-assembly and complexation between an amphiphilic block copolymer poly(methyl methacrylate)-b-poly(acrylic acid) (PMMA-b-PAA) and a rod-like conjugated polymer polyaniline (PANI) in aqueous solution were studied using transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy and dynamic light scattering. The complexation and morphology transformation were driven by electrostatic interaction between PANI and the PAA block of the block copolymer. Addition of PANI to PMMA-b-PAA induced the morphology transformation from micelles to irregular vesicles through vesicles, thick-walled vesicles (TWVs) and multimicellar vesicles (MMVs). Among the observed morphologies, MMVs were observed for the first time. Morphology transformation was studied as a function of aniline/acrylic acid molar ratio ([ANI]/[AA]). Micelles were observed for the pure block copolymer, while vesicles and TWVs were observed at [ANI]/[AA] = 0.1 and 0.3, respectively. MMVs were observed at [ANI]/[AA] = 0.5 and irregular vesicles were observed for molar ratios at 0.7 and above. Clearly, a conjugated polymer like polyaniline can induce a morphology transformation even at its lower concentrations and produce complex morphologies.

Cancer stem cells in prostate cancer chemoresistance

There is currently no cure for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Chemoresistance and metastatic disease remain the main causes of treatment failure and mortality in CaP patients. Although several advances have been made in the control of CRPC with some newly developed drugs, there is still an urgent need to investigate the mechanisms and pathways of prostate cancer (CaP) metastasis and chemoresistance, identify useful therapeutic targets, develop novel treatment approaches, improve current therapeutic modalities and increase patients' survival. Cancer stem cells (CSCs), a minority population of cancer cells characterised by self-renewal and tumor initiation, have gained intense attention as they not only play a crucial role in cancer recurrence but also contribute substantially to chemoresistance. As such, a number of mechanisms in chemoresistance have been identified to be associated with CSCs. Therefore, a thorough and integral understanding of these mechanisms can identify novel biomarkers and develop innovative therapeutic strategies for CaP treatment. Our recent data have demonstrated CSCs are associated with CaP chemosensitivity. In this review, we discuss the roles of putative CSC markers in CaP chemoresistance and elucidate several CSC-associated signaling pathways such as PI3K/Akt/mTOR, Wnt/β-catenin and Notch pathways in the regulation of CaP chemoresistance. Moreover, we will summarize emerging and innovative approaches for the treatment of CRPC and address the challenging CRPC that is driven by CSCs. Understanding the link between CSCs and metastatic CRPC will facilitate the development of novel therapeutic approaches to overcome chemoresistance and improve the clinical outcomes of CaP patients.

Bioactive functions of milk proteins: a comparative genomics approach

The composition of milk includes factors required to provide appropriate nutrition for the growth of the neonate. However, it is now clear that milk has many functions and comprises bioactive molecules that play a central role in regulating developmental processes in the young while providing a protective function for both the suckled young and the mammary gland during the lactation cycle. Identifying these bioactives and their physiological function in eutherians can be difficult and requires extensive screening of milk components that may function to improve well-being and options for prevention and treatment of disease. New animal models with unique reproductive strategies are now becoming increasingly relevant to search for these factors.

Upregulation of sodium iodide symporter (NIS) protein expression by an innate immunity component: promising potential for targeting radiosensitive retinoblastoma

Retinoblastoma (RB), a malignant tumour of the eye arising from developing retina, is the most frequent primary intraocular malignancy of childhood. Its primary management with chemotherapy involves combination regimen of etoposide, vincristine and carboplatin and intra vitreal chemotherapy using melphalan when vitreous seeds develop. Radiotherapy is another effective mode in treating RB. We recently explored the notion if radiotherapy in RB can be mediated via Sodium Iodide Symporter (NIS), an intrinsic membrane glycoprotein which is a key regulator of iodide access to thyroid gland. Its expression has been exploited successfully for diagnostic imaging and molecular radionuclide-based therapy of thyroid cancer. We determined that NIS is expressed endogenously in RB tumour tissues, and in retinoblastoma cell lines Y79 and Weri-Rb-1, and therefore made an attempt to enhance the endogenously low expression of NIS protein in both Y79 and Weri-Rb-1 cells. Here we report about the potential of bovine lactoferrin (bLf) which is a known chemo preventive and emerging safe anti-cancer bio drug, as well as a natural transcriptional activator of genes, to enhance the endogenous expression of NIS in Y79 and Weri-Rb-1 cells. Real time PCR revealed that both cell lines express mRNA of lactoferrin receptors while flow cytometry and confocal microscopy showed the cells efficiently internalize bLf which upregulates NIS expression. These findings highlight an important step that could be taken towards the development of less harmful approaches for the treatment of RB by employing natural supplement bLf (with its clinically proven safe profile), and warrants further studies in future, focussing on enhancing NIS expression in RB cells and NIS functional assays in these cells.

Bovine lactoferrin targets apoptotic and EGFR mechanisms in breast cancer

 This research investigated the anti-cancer effects of milk protein, lactoferrin. It was found that lactoferrin specifically induced cell death in breast cancer cells and was non-toxic to normal mammary gland cells. Key molecular mechanisms targeted by lactoferrin were elucidated in this study which provides important insight into the activity of this protein as an anti-cancer agent.

Associations between dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) levels, pituitary volume, and social anxiety in children

 Early timing of adrenarche, associated with relatively high levels of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulphate (DHEA-S) in children, has been linked with mental health problems, particularly anxiety. However, little is known about possible neurobiological mechanisms underlying this association. The pituitary gland is a key component of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, the activation of which triggers the onset of adrenarche. The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which pituitary gland volume mediated the relationship between levels of DHEA/DHEA-S relative to age (i.e., adrenarcheal timing) and symptoms of anxiety in 95 children (50 female, M age 9.50 years, SD 0.34 years). Relatively high DHEA and DHEA-S (DHEA/S) levels were found to be associated with larger pituitary gland volumes. There was no significant direct effect of relative DHEA/S levels on overall symptoms of anxiety. However, results supported an indirect link between relatively high DHEA/S levels and symptoms of social anxiety, mediated by pituitary gland volume. No sex differences were observed for any relationship. Our findings suggest that neurobiological mechanisms may be partly responsible for the link between relatively early adrenarche and anxiety symptoms in children. One possible mechanism for this finding is that an enlarged pituitary gland in children experiencing relatively advanced adrenarche might be associated with hyper-activity/reactivity of the HPA axis. Further research is needed to understand the role of stress in the link between adrenarcheal timing and HPA-axis function, especially in relation to the development of anxiety symptoms in children and adolescents.

Effects of stress on reproduction in non-rodent mammals : the role of glucocorticoids and sex differences

The means by which stress influences reproduction is not clearly understood, but may involve a number of endocrine, paracrine and neural systems. Stress impacts on the reproductive axis at the hypothalamus (to affect GnRH secretion) and the pituitary gland (to affect gonadotrophin secretion), with direct effects on the gonads being of less importance. Different stressors have different effects and there are differences in response to short- and long-term stress. Many short-term stresses fail to affect reproduction and there are reports of stimulatory effects of some 'stressors'. There are species differences in the way that specific stressors affect reproduction. Sex differences in the effects of a particular stressor have been delineated and these may relate to effects of stress at different levels of the hypothalamo-pituitary axis. The significance of stress-induced secretion of cortisol varies with species. In some instances, there appears to be little impact of short-term increases in cortisol concentrations and protracted increases in plasma concentration seem to be required before any deleterious effect on reproduction is apparent. Issues of sex, sex steroid status, type of stressor and duration of stress need to be considered to improve understanding of this issue.

Stress and reproduction: central mechanisms and sex differences in non-rodent species

Despite extensive research, the mechanisms by which stress affects reproduction are unknown. Activation of stress systems could potentially influence reproduction at any level of the hypothalamo-pituitary gonadal axis. Nonetheless, the predominant impact is on the secretion of gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) from the brain and the secretion of the gonadotrophins, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), from the gonadotrophs of the anterior pituitary gland. When stress is prolonged, it is likely that secretion of the gonadotrophins will be suppressed but the effects of acute stress or repeated acute stress are not clear. Different stressors activate different pathways for varying durations, and the actions of stress vary with sex and are influenced by the predominance of particular sex steroids in the circulation. The mechanisms by which stress influences reproduction are likely to involve complex interactions between a number of central and peripheral pathways and may be different in males and females. To understand these mechanisms, it is important to determine the stress pathways that are activated by particular stressors and to establish how these pathways affect the secretion and actions of GnRH. Furthermore, there is a need to know how stress influences the feedback actions of gonadal steroids and inhibin.

Influence of sex and gonadal status of sheep on cortisol secretion in response to ACTH and on cortisol and LH secretion in response to stress: importance of different stressors

There are sex differences in the response to stress and in the influence of stress on reproduction which may be due to gonadal steroids but the nature of these differences and the role of the gonads are not understood. We tested the hypotheses that sex and the presence/absence of gonads (gonadal status) will influence the cortisol response to injection of ACTH, insulin-induced hypoglycaemia and isolation/restraint stress, and that sex and gonadal status will influence the secretion of LH in response to isolation/restraint stress. Four groups of sheep were used in each of three experiments: gonad-intact rams, gonadectomised rams, gonad-intact ewes in the mid-luteal phase of the oestrous cycle and gonadectomised ewes. In Experiment 1 (n=4/group), jugular blood samples were collected every 10 min for 6 h; after 3 h, two animals in each group were injected (i.v.) with ACTH and the remaining two animals were injected (i.v.) with saline. Treatments were reversed 5 days later so that every animal received both treatments. Experiment 2 (n=4/group) used a similar schedule except that insulin was injected (i.v.) instead of ACTH. In Experiment 3 (n=5/group), blood samples were collected every 10 min for 16 h on a control day and again 2 weeks later when, after 8 h of sampling, all sheep were isolated and restrained for 8 h. Plasma cortisol was significantly (P<0.05) elevated following injection of ACTH or insulin and during isolation/restraint stress. There were no significant differences between the sexes in the cortisol response to ACTH. Rams had a greater (P<0.05) cortisol response to insulin-induced hypoglycaemia than ewes while ewes had a greater (P<0.05) cortisol response to isolation/restraint stress than rams. There was no effect of gonadal status on these parameters. Plasma LH was suppressed (P<0.05) in gonadectomised animals during isolation/restraint stress but was not affected in gonad-intact animals, and there were no differences between the sexes. Our results show that the sex that has the greater cortisol response to a stressor depends on the stressor imposed and that these sex differences are likely to be at the level of the hypothalamo-pituitary unit rather than at the adrenal gland. Since there was a sex difference in the cortisol response to isolation/restraint, the lack of a sex difference in the response of LH to this stress suggests that glucocorticoids are unlikely to be a major mediator of the stress-induced suppression of LH secretion.

Efeito dos ácidos etilmalônico e metilsucínico sobre alguns parâmetros do sistema glutamatérgico e de estresse oxidativo em cérebro de ratos

A deficiência da enzima desidrogenase de acil-CoA de cadeia curta (SCAD) é um erro inato do metabolismo potencialmente letal que afeta o último ciclo da oxidação de ácidos graxos. O bloqueio da rota na conversão de n-butiril-CoA a acetil-CoA resultante da deficiência enzimática leva ao acúmulo tecidual e aumento da concentração nos líquidos biológicos predominantemente dos ácidos etilmalônico e metilsucínico. Os pacientes afetados apresentam episódios de acidose metabólica intermitente, hiperamonemia, coma e acidose neonatal com hiperreflexia, miopatia por depósito de lipídios e hipotonia. Os sinais e sintomas dessa doença são variáveis, podendo aparecer em qualquer idade, do nascimento à vida adulta, e em combinações variáveis, freqüentemente levando a episódios ameaçadores à vida de descompensação metabólica depois de um período de ingesta inadequada de calorias e/ou doença intercorrente. Tendo em vista que a patogênese do dano cerebral na deficiência da SCAD é pouco conhecida, no presente estudo investigamos a ação dos ácidos etilmalônico e metilsucínico sobre alguns parâmetros envolvendo o sistema glutamatérgico e a produção de estresse oxidativo em cérebro de ratos jovens. Observamos inicialmente que o ácido etilmalônico promoveu uma diminuição significativa na captação de L-[3H]glutamato por fatias de córtex nas concentrações de 0,01, 0,1 e 1,0 mM. Já nas técnicas relacionadas à união de L-[3H]glutamato em membranas sinápticas plasmáticas, o ácido provocou uma diminuição da ligação de L-[3H]glutamato às membranas na ausência de sódio em todas as concentrações testadas (0,01 – 1,0 mM) e, quando em presença de sódio, houve diminuição da união somente na concentração de 1,0 mM do ácido. Por outro lado, não foi verificado qualquer efeito desse ácido sobre a captação vesicular de L-[3H]glutamato nas concentrações utilizadas. O ácido metilsucínico comportou-se de forma semelhante ao ácido etilmalônico nos parâmetros de captação de L-[3H]glutamato por fatias e união de L-[3H]glutamato em membranas sinápticas plasmáticas. Houve uma diminuição da captação de glutamato por fatias de córtex cerebral, uma diminuição da união de L-[3H]glutamato na ausência de sódio em todas as concentrações e, na presença de sódio, uma diminuição da captação apenas na concentração de 1,0 mM. Por outro lado, distintamente do que ocorreu com o ácido etilmalônico, na captação vesicular observamos uma diminuição da captação em todas as concentrações testadas. Nossos resultados demonstram, desta forma, alterações importantes no sistema glutamatérgico pelos ácidos acumulados na deficiência da desidrogenase de acil-CoA de cadeia curta. A etapa seguinte foi investigar o efeito dos ácidos etilmalônico e metilsucínico sobre parâmetros de estresse oxidativo em córtex cerebral de ratos jovens: medida do potencial antioxidante total (TRAP), medida das substâncias reativas ao ácido tiobarbitúrico (TBA-RS) e medida de quimiluminescência. Foi verificado que os dois ácidos não afetam a lipoperoxidação, medida através do TBA-RS e quimiluminescência e tampouco as defesas antioxidantes não-enzimáticas, medidas através do TRAP. Embora não tenhamos medido o efeito dos ácidos sobre as defesas enzimáticas antioxidantes representadas pelas enzimas superóxido dismutase, catalase e glutationa peroxidase, os resultados dos parâmetros analisados no presente trabalho sugerem que os ácidos acumulados na deficiência da SCAD não produzem estresse oxidativo.

Efeito in vitro dos ácidos glutárico e 3-hidroxiglutárico sobre alguns parâmetros do sistema glutamatérgico em córtex cerebral de ratos e em astrócitos cultivados de córtex de ratos

A acidemia glutárica tipo I (AG I) é um erro inato do metabolismo de herança autossômica recessiva que se caracteriza bioquimicamente pela deficiência da atividade da enzima glutaril-CoA desidrogenase da rota de degradação dos aminoácidos lisina, hidroxilisina e triptofânio. O bloqueio da rota na conversão de glutaril-CoA à crotonil-CoA e resultante da deficiência enzimática leva ao acúmulo tecidual e aumento da concentração nos líquidos biológicos predominantemente dos ácidos glutárico e 3-hidroxiglutárico e, em alguns casos, do ácido glutacônico. Os pacientes afetados apresentam sintomas neurológicos especialmente após crises encefalopáticas, comuns no primeiro ano de vida, em que ocorre necrose bilateral dos gânglios da base, degeneração do globo pálido e da substância branca. Tendo em vista que a patogênese do dano cerebral na AG I é pouco conhecida e que as lesões do SNC dos pacientes muito se assemelham às lesões devido à excitotoxicidade, no presente estudo investigamos a ação dos ácidos glutárico e 3-hidroxiglutárico sobre alguns parâmetros neuroquímicos envolvendo o sistema glutamatérgico em córtex cerebral e astrócitos cultivados de córtex cerebral de ratos. Alguns desses parâmetros já haviam sido testados previamente com o ácido glutárico. Observamos que o ácido 3-hidroxiglutárico, em concentrações de 10 µM a 1 mM, não alterou a captação de L-[3H]glutamato por preparações sinaptossomais. Verificamos também que os ácidos glutárico e 3- hidroxiglutárico, nas mesmas concentrações, não alteraram a liberação do L- [3H]glutamato por estas estruturas em condições basais ou estimuladas (despolarizadas) por potássio (20 mM e 40 mM). Já nos ensaios de união do L- [3H] glutamato a membranas plasmáticas, o ácido 3-hidroxiglutárico inibiu a união do neurotransmissor em meio de incubação sem sódio e cloreto (sítios receptores), quando em baixas concentrações (1 µM a 100 µM), enquanto não alterou esta união em altas concentrações (500 µM a 2 mM). Na presença de alto sódio (sítios transportadores), ambos os ácidos inibiram a união de L- [3H]glutamato em todas as concentrações testadas (10 µM a 1 mM). Outros experimentos demonstraram que o ácido 3-hidroxiglutárico não alterou a captação vesicular de L-[3H]glutamato. Avaliamos também a influência dos ácidos glutárico e 3-hidroxiglutárico sobre a captação de L-[3H]glutamato por astrócitos cultivados de córtex cerebral. Inicialmente verificamos a viabilidade destas células na presença dos ácidos pelo teste do MTT que reflete a atividade das desidrogenases mitocondriais e também pela liberação de lactato desidrogenase para o meio de incubação. Na concentração de 1 mM , os ácidos glutárico e 3- hidroxiglutárico não se mostraram citotóxicos para estas células. Por outro lado, quando incubados por 60 minutos, nas concentrações de 50 µM e 1mM, aumentaram significativamente a captação de L-[3H]glutamato pelos astrócitos.

Estudo geotécnico de dois taludes da formação serra geral, RS

Esta dissertação de mestrado apresenta um estudo sobre dois taludes coluvionares localizados na região nordeste do Rio Grande do Sul, inseridos no contexto geológico da Formação Serra Geral. Estes taludes apresentam características e comportamento geotécnico distintos. O objetivo desta dissertação é obter parâmetros de condutividade hidráulica e resistência ao cisalhamento dos solos presentes nos dois taludes, a fim de entender os diferentes processos de ruptura observados. Um dos taludes, denominado talude de Canastra, apresenta um processo de rastejo; este talude tem uma inclinação bastante suave e apresenta uma camada de colúvio sobre um solo residual de basalto vesicular. O talude de Canastra apresenta uma camada de transição entre o colúvio e o solo residual; os ensaios de condutividade hidráulica realizados em campo mostraram que esta camada é menos permeável do que o colúvio e o solo residual, formando uma camada quase impermeável e criando condições para a formação de dois níveis freáticos neste talude. Nos solos deste talude foi detectada a presença significante de argila expansiva (montmorilonita). O outro talude estudado, denominado de talude da rodovia RS470, apresentou uma ruptura abrupta após um período de intensa chuva. Este talude apresenta uma inclinação bastante íngreme e um solo coluvionar assente diretamente sobre basalto alterado. A condutividade hidráulica deste colúvio é bastante elevada. O colúvio apresenta pouca argila expansiva, sendo formado essencialmente por caulinita. Os ensaios ring shear, realizados para a obtenção de parâmetros de resistência ao cisalhamento residual nos solos dos dois taludes, apresentaram valores muito baixos de φr, inferiores a 10° Valores semelhantes foram encontrados por Pinheiro (2000) e Rigo (2000) em solos residuais de basalto da Formação Serra Geral. Foram realizadas simulações numéricas de fluxo d’água e de estabilidade destes taludes, na tentativa de verificar as condições em que aconteceram os escorregamentos.

Modelagem estrutural e tridimensional para a prospecção e avaliação dos depósitos de ágata do distrito mineiro de Salto do Jacuí (RS)

O Distrito Mineiro de Salto do Jacuí (DMSJ) abrange uma área aproximada de 250 km2 localizada no Município de Salto do Jacuí na região central do estado do Rio Grande do Sul (Brasil). A região é caracterizada pela ocorrência de derrames basálticos a dacíticos pertencentes a Fm. Serra Geral, uma das unidades de topo da Bacia do Paraná. O DMSJ é um dos maiores produtores mundiais de geodos de ágata que ocorrem em derrames basálticos. Em escala de mina, os depósitos de geodos de ágata do DMSJ ocorrem em uma seqüência vulcânica constituída por 3 unidades líticas principais: 1) o dacito semi-vítreo vesículoamigdaloidal inferior (DSVI), 2) o basalto vesículo-amigdaloidal mineralizado (BM, “tabatinga”), e 3) o dacito vesicular (DV, “cupim”). Essas unidades vulcânicas constituem a denominada Estrutura Jacuí. Essa tese propõe um modelo estrutural para o controle da distribuição dos geodos de ágata no DMSJ e um novo conjunto de procedimentos aplicados para a exploração dos geodos de ágata. A modelagem estrutural 3D e a distribuição espacial dos depósitos e dos tipos de geodos de ágata são avaliados para permitir futuras investigações detalhadas a respeito da estimativa de reservas remanescentes do DMSJ. Mapeamento geológico em escala de mina, análise estrutural e investigação da distribuição espacial dos geodos de ágata foram realizados para desenvolver um modelo 3D do controle estrutural dos geodos de ágata e definir parâmetros de prospecção de geodos de ágata. A modelagem 3D e o controle estrutural da distribuição dos geodos de ágata permitiram definir alguns critérios para investigações quanto à estimativa de recursos/reservas no DMSJ. Nessa linha de investigação, devem-se considerar principalmente os seguintes parâmetros: i) os novos procedimentos para exploração de geodos de ágata, ii) a diluição introduzida pela presença de diques de arenito Botucatu que cortam o Basalto Mineralizado, e iii) o controle estrutural proposto parta os depósitos de ágata do DMSJ. Esses parâmetros são úteis nas atividades de exploração e na avaliação de novas áreas de geodos de ágata. O controle estrutural e a modelagem 3D da distribuição dos geodos de ágata também permitem definir os limites das unidades vulcânicas mineralizadas e a extensão do corpo mineralizado.

Limiting glutamate transmission in a Vglut2-expressing subpopulation of the subthalamic nucleus is sufficient to cause hyperlocomotion

The subthalamic nucleus (STN) is a key area of the basal ganglia circuitry regulating movement. We identified a subpopulation of neurons within this structure that coexpresses Vglut2 and Pitx2, and by conditional targeting of this subpopulation we reduced Vglut2 expression levels in the STN by 40%, leaving Pitx2 expression intact. This reduction diminished, yet did not eliminate, glutamatergic transmission in the substantia nigra pars reticulata and entopeduncular nucleus, two major targets of the STN. The knock-out mice displayed hyperlocomotion and decreased latency in the initiation of movement while preserving normal gait and balance. Spatial cognition, social function, and level of impulsive choice also remained undisturbed. Furthermore, these mice showed reduced dopamine transporter binding and slower dopamine clearance in vivo, suggesting that Vglut2-expressing cells in the STN regulate dopaminergic transmission. Our results demonstrate that altering the contribution of a limited population within the STN is sufficient to achieve results similar to STN lesions and high-frequency stimulation, but with fewer side effects.