Crowdsourcing language change with smartphone applications

Crowdsourcing linguistic phenomena with smartphone applications is relatively new. In linguistics, apps have predominantly been developed to create pronunciation dictionaries, to train acoustic models, and to archive endangered languages. This paper presents the first account of how apps can be used to collect data suitable for documenting language change: we created an app, Dialäkt Äpp (DÄ), which predicts users’ dialects. For 16 linguistic variables, users select a dialectal variant from a drop-down menu. DÄ then geographically locates the user’s dialect by suggesting a list of communes where dialect variants most similar to their choices are used. Underlying this prediction are 16 maps from the historical Linguistic Atlas of German-speaking Switzerland, which documents the linguistic situation around 1950. Where users disagree with the prediction, they can indicate what they consider to be their dialect’s location. With this information, the 16 variables can be assessed for language change. Thanks to the playfulness of its functionality, DÄ has reached many users; our linguistic analyses are based on data from nearly 60,000 speakers. Results reveal a relative stability for phonetic variables, while lexical and morphological variables seem more prone to change. Crowdsourcing large amounts of dialect data with smartphone apps has the potential to complement existing data collection techniques and to provide evidence that traditional methods cannot, with normal resources, hope to gather. Nonetheless, it is important to emphasize a range of methodological caveats, including sparse knowledge of users’ linguistic backgrounds (users only indicate age, sex) and users’ self-declaration of their dialect. These are discussed and evaluated in detail here. Findings remain intriguing nevertheless: as a means of quality control, we report that traditional dialectological methods have revealed trends similar to those found by the app. This underlines the validity of the crowdsourcing method. We are presently extending DÄ architecture to other languages.

Documenting sound change with smartphone apps

Crowdsourcing linguistic phenomena with smartphone applications is relatively new. Apps have been used to train acoustic models for automatic speech recognition (de Vries et al. 2014) and to archive endangered languages (Iwaidja Inyaman Team 2012). Leemann and Kolly (2013) developed a free app for iOS—Dialäkt Äpp (DÄ) (>78k downloads)—to document language change in Swiss German. Here, we present results of sound change based on DÄ data. DÄ predicts the users’ dialects: for 16 variables, users select their dialectal variant. DÄ then tells users which dialect they speak. Underlying this prediction are maps from the Linguistic Atlas of German-speaking Switzerland (SDS, 1962-2003), which documents the linguistic situation around 1950. If predicted wrongly, users indicate their actual dialect. With this information, the 16 variables can be assessed for language change. Results revealed robustness of phonetic variables; lexical and morphological variables were more prone to change. Phonetic variables like to lift (variants: /lupfə, lʏpfə, lipfə/) revealed SDS agreement scores of nearly 85%, i.e., little sound change. Not all phonetic variables are equally robust: ladle (variants: /xælə, xællə, xæuə, xæɫə, xæɫɫə/) exhibited significant sound change. We will illustrate the results using maps that show details of the sound changes at hand.

Automatic identification of discourse markers in dialogues: An in-depth study of like and well

The lexical items like and well can serve as discourse markers (DMs), but can also play numerous other roles, such as verb or adverb. Identifying the occurrences that function as DMs is an important step for language understanding by computers. In this study, automatic classifiers using lexical, prosodic/positional and sociolinguistic features are trained over transcribed dialogues, manually annotated with DM information. The resulting classifiers improve state-of-the-art performance of DM identification, at about 90% recall and 79% precision for like (84.5% accuracy, κ = 0.69), and 99% recall and 98% precision for well (97.5% accuracy, κ = 0.88). Automatic feature analysis shows that lexical collocations are the most reliable indicators, followed by prosodic/positional features, while sociolinguistic features are marginally useful for the identification of DM like and not useful for well. The differentiated processing of each type of DM improves classification accuracy, suggesting that these types should be treated individually.

Annotating the meaning of discourse connectives in multilingual corpora

Discourse connectives are lexical items indicating coherence relations between discourse segments. Even though many languages possess a whole range of connectives, important divergences exist cross-linguistically in the number of connectives that are used to express a given relation. For this reason, connectives are not easily paired with a univocal translation equivalent across languages. This paper is a first attempt to design a reliable method to annotate the meaning of discourse connectives cross-linguistically using corpus data. We present the methodological choices made to reach this aim and report three annotation experiments using the framework of the Penn Discourse Tree Bank.

How comparable are parallel corpora? Measuring the distribution of general vocabulary and connectives

In this paper, we question the homogeneity of a large parallel corpus by measuring the similarity between various sub-parts. We compare results obtained using a general measure of lexical similarity based on χ2 and by counting the number of discourse connectives. We argue that discourse connectives provide a more sensitive measure, revealing differences that are not visible with the general measure. We also provide evidence for the existence of specific characteristics defining translated texts as opposed to non-translated ones, due to a universal tendency for explicitation.

Blue bananas: development of a task to investigate the representation of synaesthetic experiences

Research has mainly focussed on the perceptual nature of synaesthesia. However, synaesthetic experiences are also semantically represented. It was our aim to develop a task to investigate the semantic representation of the concurrent and its relation to the inducer in grapheme-colour synaesthesia. Non-synaesthetes were either tested with a lexical-decision (i.e., word / non-word) or a semantic-classification (i.e., edibility decision) task. Targets consisted of words which were strongly associated with a specific colour (e.g., banana - yellow) and words which were neutral and not associated with a specific colour (e.g., aunt). Target words were primed with colours: the prime target relationship was either intramodal (i.e., word - word) or crossmodal (colour patch - word). Each of the four task versions consisted of three conditions: congruent (same colour for prime and target), incongruent (different colour), and unrelated (neutral target). For both tasks (i.e., lexical and semantic) and both versions of the task (i.e., intramodal and crossmodal), we expected faster reaction times (RTs) in the congruent condition than in the neutral condition and slower RTs in the incongruent condition than the neutral condition. Stronger effects were expected in the intramodal condition due to the overlap in the prime target modality. The results suggest that the hypotheses were partly confirmed. We conclude that the tasks and hypotheses can be readily adopted to investigate the nature of the representation of the synaesthetic experiences.

Code-switching: a touchstone of models of bilingual language production

The goal of the present thesis was to investigate the production of code-switched utterances in bilinguals’ speech production. This study investigates the availability of grammatical-category information during bilingual language processing. The specific aim is to examine the processes involved in the production of Persian-English bilingual compound verbs (BCVs). A bilingual compound verb is formed when the nominal constituent of a compound verb is replaced by an item from the other language. In the present cases of BCVs the nominal constituents are replaced by a verb from the other language. The main question addressed is how a lexical element corresponding to a verb node can be placed in a slot that corresponds to a noun lemma. This study also investigates how the production of BCVs might be captured within a model of BCVs and how such a model may be integrated within incremental network models of speech production. In the present study, both naturalistic and experimental data were used to investigate the processes involved in the production of BCVs. In the first part of the present study, I collected 2298 minutes of a popular Iranian TV program and found 962 code-switched utterances. In 83 (8%) of the switched cases, insertions occurred within the Persian compound verb structure, hence, resulting in BCVs. As to the second part of my work, a picture-word interference experiment was conducted. This study addressed whether in the case of the production of Persian-English BCVs, English verbs compete with the corresponding Persian compound verbs as a whole, or whether English verbs compete with the nominal constituents of Persian compound verbs only. Persian-English bilinguals named pictures depicting actions in 4 conditions in Persian (L1). In condition 1, participants named pictures of action using the whole Persian compound verb in the context of its English equivalent distractor verb. In condition 2, only the nominal constituent was produced in the presence of the light verb of the target Persian compound verb and in the context of a semantically closely related English distractor verb. In condition 3, the whole Persian compound verb was produced in the context of a semantically unrelated English distractor verb. In condition 4, only the nominal constituent was produced in the presence of the light verb of the target Persian compound verb and in the context of a semantically unrelated English distractor verb. The main effect of linguistic unit was significant by participants and items. Naming latencies were longer in the nominal linguistic unit compared to the compound verb (CV) linguistic unit. That is, participants were slower to produce the nominal constituent of compound verbs in the context of a semantically closely related English distractor verb compared to producing the whole compound verbs in the context of a semantically closely related English distractor verb. The three-way interaction between version of the experiment (CV and nominal versions), linguistic unit (nominal and CV linguistic units), and relation (semantically related and unrelated distractor words) was significant by participants. In both versions, naming latencies were longer in the semantically related nominal linguistic unit compared to the response latencies in the semantically related CV linguistic unit. In both versions, naming latencies were longer in the semantically related nominal linguistic unit compared to response latencies in the semantically unrelated nominal linguistic unit. Both the analysis of the naturalistic data and the results of the experiment revealed that in the case of the production of the nominal constituent of BCVs, a verb from the other language may compete with a noun from the base language, suggesting that grammatical category does not necessarily provide a constraint on lexical access during the production of the nominal constituent of BCVs. There was a minimal context in condition 2 (the nominal linguistic unit) in which the nominal constituent was produced in the presence of its corresponding light verb. The results suggest that generating words within a context may not guarantee that the effect of grammatical class becomes available. A model is proposed in order to characterize the processes involved in the production of BCVs. Implications for models of bilingual language production are discussed.

Profile Effects in Early Bilingual Language and Literacy

Bilingual children's language and literacy is stronger in some domains than others. Reanalysis of data from a broad-scale study of monolingual English and bilingual Spanish-English learners in Miami provided a clear demonstration of "profile effects," where bilingual children perform at varying levels compared to monolinguals across different test types. The profile effects were strong and consistent across conditions of socioeconomic status, language in the home, and school setting (two way or English immersion). The profile effects indicated comparable performance of bilingual and monolingual children in basic reading tasks, but lower vocabulary scores for the bilinguals in both languages. Other test types showed intermediate scores in bilinguals, again with substantial consistency across groups. These profiles are interpreted as primarily due to the "distributed characteristic" of bilingual lexical knowledge, the tendency for bilingual individuals to know some words in one language but not the other and vice versa.

Europa en los historiadores y geógrafos griegos del período helenístico

El propósito de este trabajo es revisar el término Europa y su familia léxica en los historiadores y geógrafos del periodo helenístico, analizando los diferentes significados de tal palabra como realidad mítica, geográfica, política, humana y cultural.

El concepto cristiano de Patria : Francisco L. Bernárdez, Leopoldo Marechal

A partir de las notas caracterizadoras del concepto de Patria que Alberto Caturelli da en su libro La patria y el orden temporal: El simbolismo de las Malvinas, el presente trabajo se propone rescatar esas notas en la poesía de Francisco Luis Bernárdez y de Leopoldo Marechal. Del primer poeta se analiza su poema “La patria", del segundo, el segundo día de su Heptamerón, en particular su “Descubrimiento de la Patria" y su “Didáctica de la Patria". La pertinencia del presente análisis reside en la importancia de rescatar, en nuestras letras, un concepto de Patria que se erige sobre un fundamento metafísico y con raíces cristianas, distinto a las conceptualizaciones canónicas del siglo XX.

La tradición clásica en Los devaneos de Erato de Ana Rossetti

En Los devaneos de Erato, Ana Rossetti retoma motivos, temas e imágenes de la tradición clásica y los reinterpreta. El mundo clásico se transforma así en un medio por el cual Rossetti busca subvertir el imaginario mítico y parodiar el mundo patriarcal, dando lugar a una lectura personal donde el erotismo cobra especial importancia. A partir de un corpus de poemas pertenecientes a dicho libro, rastrearemos, por un lado, los modos en los que la poeta hace referencia al mito clásico (como la imitación de la sintaxis, la selección lexical o haciendo referencia directa a las fuentes de la literatura clásica de las que se sirve) y los efectos de sentido a los que llega a través de ellos; por otro lado, veremos cómo Rossetti pretende invertir el orden tradicional hombre-sujeto/mujer-objeto, presentando al hombre como objeto de deseo y no como sujeto que siente y experimenta, frente a la mujer que, en la tradición poética occidental, tiene una posición de pasividad. Es a través del mito que Rossetti configura una nueva identidad femenina y es en este punto en el que nos detendremos, pues consideramos que es el que realiza el aporte más original respecto a la tradición clásica

Contribuições ao estudo da ambiguidade da linguagem sob a ótica enunciativa

Parte da linguística analisa o fenômeno da ambiguidade em funçao das regras gramaticais e tende a categorizá-lo em diferentes níveis, o que faz emergir taxonomias que remetem a ambiguidade a problemas tencionáveis nos âmbitos semântico, lexical, sintático, morfológico, etc. Assim, esse trabalho se foca na releitura de algumas dessas taxonomias com o suporte teórico-metodológico da Teoria das Operaçoes Predicativas e Enunciativas (TOPE) do linguista francês Antoine Culioli, o qual nao propoe uma divisao do estudo da língua em abordagens fonéticas, semânticas, morfologias, etc. por crer que tais divisoes nao trazem uma visao do todo da linguagem. Ao contrário, ele insiste num um trabalho que afirma a necessidade de um sistema de representaçao que suporte a generalizaçao, que vê o significado e a sintaxe como inseparáveis e propoe que se observem valores semântico-discursivos veiculados por marcas de diferentes ordens (entoacional, lexical, morfológica, etc.) geradas na relaçao léxico- gramática. Na verdade, apostamos na indeterminaçao da linguagem para chegarmos a resultados que mostrem que as categorizaçoes sao instáveis e elegem, muitas vezes, apenas questoes de língua para determinar as taxonomias ao invés de tomarem ciência dos valores (entre eles a modalidade, o tempo e o aspecto) responsáveis pela ambiguidade fundamental da linguagem e pela criaçao de um cenário sociopsicológico que torna cada ato enunciativo uma construçao ímpar de um espaço orientado e determinado, o qual estabiliza os valores referenciais. Dessa forma, atribuir apenas à gramática o papel de desencadeadora de uma ambiguidade (seja ela no campo do léxico ou da sintaxe) é desconsiderar que a linguagem se prolifera e possibilita um jogo incessante de significaçoes garantido pela dissimetria inevitável entre produçao e reconhecimento interpretativo. Essa espécie de jogo fundadora da comunicaçao

Aportes de los estudios de variación lingüística a la enseñanza de una lengua segunda y extranjera en su dinamismo cultural

En este trabajo se propone reflexionar sobre los principales postulados de la Etnopragmática (García 1990, 1995; Martínez 1995, 2000; Mauder 2000) y los aportes que brindar a la enseñanza/aprendizaje de una lengua segunda y extranjera. Esta teoría centra sus estudios en la variación lingüística (intra e interhablante) pues en ella se reflejan los distintos perfilamientos cognitivos de los hablantes frente al mundo referido con el fin de transmitir mensajes coherentes. Esto fundamenta que el análisis de los morfemas, los cuales aportan un significado básico y constante a la comunicación, sea necesariamente en sus contextos de aparición.A través del análisis de la variación interhablante, puede observarse cómocada lengua o variedad lingüística proyecta una visión diferente de mundo. En cada estructura semántica, sintáctica y lexical, las lenguas cristalizan la manera en que conciben el mundo. Perder de vista esta dimensión en la enseñanza de una lengua, ya sea Materna, segunda o extranjera, significa excluir explicaciones que pueden consolidar la comprensión del uso. Aprender una lengua segunda y extranjera en su dinamismo cultural abre las puertas a otras maneras de ver y pensar la realidad, como también a reflexionar sobre las características de nuestra propia lengua. Creemos, en este sentido, que los postulados de la Etnopragmática ofrecen herramientas sumamente productivas para la enseñanza/aprendizaje de una lengua segunda y extranjera en su dinamismo cultural.

Variação e mudança no português da amazônia : Uma análise do marcador pragmático extra-cláusula tá no falar santareno (Estado do Pará)

Este trabalho é orientado pela vertente funcionalista da linguagem, que estuda a estrutura linguística associada a fatores comunicativos. Nosso objetivo é identificar e analisar a multifuncionalidade do marcador pragmático extra-cláusula tá na comunidade de fala do município de Santarém, localizado a oeste do estado do Pará (PA). Considerando o processo de gramaticalizaçao, compreendido como o processo de mudança linguística pelo qual um item e/ou construçao lexical torna se gramatical ou um item e/ou construçao gramatical torna-se ainda mais gramatical (Hopper & Traugott,1993), apresentamos os diferentes usos do verbo estar, isto é, a coocorrência de seus usos como verbo lexical (estar, como em Ele está em casa), verbo funcional (como em Ele está cansado), verbo auxiliar (estar + Vndo, como em Ele está escrevendo) e como marcador pragmático (tá, como em vou descrever agora a sala, tá?). Etimologicamente, o verbo estar resulta da forma latina stare, cujo significado indicava localizaçao física no espaço era empregada com sentido locativo. Após investigaçao preliminar dos usos dessa forma, levantamos a hipótese de que o verbo ESTAR sofre o processo de gramaticalizaçao o que explica os diferentes usos do verbo e a migraçao do item TA para a categoria dos marcadores pragmáticos extra cláusulas (Dik, 1997; Hengeveld E Mackenzie,2008). Entendemos por marcadores pragmáticos extra cláusulas expressoes que nao podem ser analisadas nem como cláusulas nem como fragmentos de cláusula. Os resultados confirmam nossa hipótese e apontam que o marcador TA desempenha as seguintes funçoes: de afirmaçao, de iniciador de tópico, de finalizador, de sequenciador e de checador. Como nossa abordagem é funcionalista, valemo-nos de dados reais da língua, constituímos um corpus de ocorrência do item em causa, extraído de textos do tipo Narrativa de Experiência Pessoal e Descriçao de Local que constituem o Corpus de Textos Orais do Português Santareno - CTOPS organizado por Pena-Ferreira e Lima-Gomes (2010)

La respuesta de Diómedes : Construcción discursiva de la autoridad y el disenso en el Agón verbal del canto IX de Ilíada

En Ilíada, los combates o agones verbales resultan esenciales en tanto instancias de confrontación de argumentos. Sin embargo, el desacuerdo con la autoridad no es un mecanismo instalado desde el inicio del poema. En el canto IX encontramos una escena de enfrentamiento verbal, la asamblea, que da lugar a la posibilidad de un discurso de oposición ante una propuesta por parte de Agamenón. Desde el punto de vista del análisis del discurso examinaremos la respuesta de Diomedes a Agamenón, observando la situación enunciativa, las elecciones léxicas y los ordenamientos relevantes, en función de analizar su configuración discursiva. Partimos de considerar la participación en el agón como determinada por el presupuesto de una condición de igualdad. En base a esto, indagaremos acerca de las posibilidades de expresar el disenso frente a la autoridad máxima, lo cual permitirá explorar el contexto y la estructura del debate que Ilíada presenta