Is Human Development Multidimensional?

Stiglitz's Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress (CMEPSP) argued that well-being is multidimensional and identified eight distinct dimensions. Conventional linear techniques confirm that a large number of dimensions are needed to describe development. In contrast, a new non-linear technique that we introduce from chaos theory shows that a smaller number of dimensions are needed to span the development space. From the analysis, variables representing the Health, Education, Inequality and Individual Rights areas of life quality would provide a broad picture of development, whereas income per capita adds little extra information.

Treatment of estrogens and androgens in dairy wastewater by a constructed wetland system.

Constructed wetland systems (CWS) have been used as a low cost bio-filtration system to treat farm wastewater. While studies have shown that CWS are efficient in removing organic compounds and pathogens, there is limited data on the presence of hormones in this type of treatment system. The objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of the CWS to reduce estrogenic and androgenic hormone concentration in dairy wastewater. This was achieved through a year long study on dairy wastewater samples obtained froma surface flow CWS. Analysis of hormonal levels was performed using a solid phase extraction (SPE) sample clean-up method, combined with reporter gene assays (RGAs) which incorporate relevant receptors capable of measuring total estrogenic or androgenic concentrations as low as 0.24 ng L1 and 6.9 ng L1 respectively. Monthly analysis showed a mean removal efficiency for estrogens of 95.2%, corresponding to an average residual concentration of 3.2 ng L1 17b-estradiol equivalent (EEQ), below the proposed lowest observable effect concentration (LOEC) of 10 ng L1. However, for one month a peak EEQ concentration of 115 ng L1 was only reduced to 18.8 ng L1. The mean androgenic activity peaked at 360 ng L1 and a removal efficiency of 92.1% left an average residual concentration of 32.3 ng L1 testosterone equivalent (TEQ). The results obtained demonstrate that this type of CWS is an efficient system for the treatment of hormones in dairy wastewater. However, additional design improvements may be required to further enhance removal efficiency of peak hormone concentrations.

Approaches to the Implementation of the Water Framework Directive: Targeting Mitigation Measures at Critical Source Areas of Diffuse Phosphorus in Irish Catchments

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) has initiated a shift towards a targeted approach to implementation through its focus on river basin districts as management units and the natural ecological characteristics of waterbodies. Due to its role in eutrophication, phosphorus (P) has received considerable attention, resulting in a significant body of research, which now forms the evidence base for the programme of measures (POMs) adopted in WFD River Basin Management Plans (RBMP). Targeting POMs at critical sources areas (CSAs) of P could significantly improve environmental efficiency and cost effectiveness of proposed mitigation strategies. This paper summarises the progress made towards targeting mitigation measures at CSAs in Irish catchments. A review of current research highlights that knowledge related to P export at field scale is relatively comprehensive however; the availability of site-specific data and tools limits widespread identification of CSA at this scale. Increasing complexity of hydrological processes at larger scales limits accurate identification of CSA at catchment scale. Implementation of a tiered approach, using catchment scale tools in conjunction with field-by-field surveys could decrease uncertainty and provide a more practical and cost effective method of delineating CSA in a range of catchments. Despite scientific and practical uncertainties, development of a tiered CSA-based approach to assist in the development of supplementary measures would provide a means of developing catchment-specific and cost-effective programmes of measures for diffuse P. The paper presents a conceptual framework for such an approach, which would have particular relevance for the development of supplementary measures in High Status Waterbodies (HSW). The cost and resources necessary for implementation are justified based on HSWs’ value as undisturbed reference condition ecosystems.

Batch and continuous biogas production from grass silage liquor

Herein batch and continuous mesophilic anaerobic digestion of grass silage liquor was studied. The continuous process was carried out in Armfield digesters with an OLR ranging from 0.851 to 1.77 kg COD m-3 day-1. The effect of recirculation of effluent from the digester was investigated using different OLRs of grass silage liquor feed. These results showed that as the OLR increased, the methane yield decreased for the reactor with no recycle and increased for the reactor with recycle. However, the COD removal for both digesters was nearly the same at the same OLR. Overall these studies show that grass silage liquor can produce a high quality methane steam between 70% and 80% and achieve methane yields of 0.385 m3 kg-1 COD.

Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of cellulose and cellulosic waste using a microwave reactor system

A microwave reactor system was investigated as a potential technique to maximize sugar yield for the hydrolysis of municipal solid waste for ethanol production. Specifically, dilute acid hydrolysis of a-cellulose and waste cellulosic biomass (grass clippings) with phosphoric acid was undertaken within the microwave reactor system. The experimental data and reaction kinetic analysis indicate that the use of a microwave reactor system can successfully facilitate dilute acid hydrolysis of cellulose and waste cellulosic biomass, producing high yields of total sugars in short reaction times. The maximum yield of reducing sugars was obtained at 7.5% (w/v) phosphoric acid and 160 degrees C, corresponding to 60% of the theoretical total sugars, with a reaction time of 5 min. When using a very low acid concentration (0.4% w/v) for the hydrolysis in the microwave reactor, it was found that 10 g of total sugars/100 g dry mass was produced, which is significant considering the low acid concentration. When hydrolyzing grass clippings using the microwave reactor, the optimum conditions were an acid concentration of 2.5% (w/v), 175 degrees C with a 15 min reaction time, giving 18 g/100 g dry mass of total sugars, with xylose being the sugar with the highest yield. It was observed that pentose sugars were more easily formed but also more easily degraded, these being significantly affected by increases in acid concentration and temperature. Kinetic modeling of the data indicated that the use of microwave heating may account for an increase in reaction rate constant, k(1), found in this study in comparison with conventional systems described in the literature.

User behaviour, best practice and the risks of non-target exposure associated with anticoagulant rodenticide use

Usage of anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) is an integral component of modern agriculture and is essential for the control of commensal rodent populations. However, the extensive deployment of ARs has led to widespread exposure of a range of non-target predatory birds and mammals to some compounds, in particular the second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SCARS). As a result, there has been considerable effort placed into devising voluntary best practice guidelines that increase the efficacy of rodent control and reduce the risk of non-target exposure. Currently, there is limited published information on actual practice amongst users or implementation of best practice. We assessed the behaviour of a typical group of users using an on-farm questionnaire survey. Most baited for rodents every year using SGARs. Most respondents were apparently aware of the risks of non-target exposure and adhered to some of the best practice recommendations but total compliance was rare. Our questionnaire revealed that users of first generation anticoagulant rodenticides rarely protected or checked bait stations, and so took little effort to prevent primary exposure of non-targets. Users almost never searched for and removed poisoned carcasses and many baited for prolonged periods or permanently. These factors are all likely to enhance the likelihood of primary and secondary exposure of non-target species. (C) 2010 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Survival of pathogenic bacteria during mesophilic anaerobic-digestion of animal waste

The survival of pathogenic bacteria was investigated during the operation of a full-scale anaerobic digester which was fed daily and operated at 28-degrees-C. The digester had a mean hydraulic retention time of 24 d. The viable numbers of Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Yersinia enterocolitica, Listeria monocytogenes and Campylobacter jejuni were reduced during mesophilic anaerobic digestion. Escherichia coli had the smallest mean viable numbers at each stage of the digestion process. Its mean T90 value was 76-9 d. Yersinia enterocolitica was the least resistant to the anaerobic digester environment; its mean T90 value was 18.2 d. Campylobacter jejuni was the most resistant bacterium; its mean T90 value was 438.6 d. Regression analysis showed that there were no direct relationships between the slurry input and performance of the digester and the decline of pathogen numbers during the 140 d experimental period.

Low flow water quality in rivers; septic tank systems and high-resolution phosphorus signals

Rural point sources of phosphorus (P), including septic tank systems, provide a small part of the overall phosphorus budget to surface waters in agricultural catchments but can have a disproportionate impact on the low flow P concentration of receiving rivers. This has particular importance as the discharges are approximately constant into receiving waters and these have restricted dilution capacity during ecologically sensitive summer periods. In this study, a number of identified high impact septic systems were replaced with modern sequential batch reactors in three rural catchments during a monitoring period of 4 years. Sub-hourly P monitoring was conducted using bankside-analysers. Results show that strategic replacement of defective septic tank systems with modern systems and polishing filters decreased the low flow P concentration of one catchment stream by 0.032 mg TP L- 1 (0.018 mg TRP L- 1) over the 4 years. However two of the catchment mitigation efforts were offset by continued new-builds that increased the density of septic systems from 3.4 km- 2 to 4.6 km- 2 and 13.8 km- 2 to 17.2 km- 2 and subsequently increased low flow P concentrations. Future considerations for septic system mitigation should include catchment carrying capacity as well as technology changes.