TIDAL DEPENDENCE OF PHOTOINHIBITION OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN MARINE MACROPHYTES OF THE SOUTH CHINA SEA

PHOTOSYSTEM-II; CHLOROPHYLL FLUORESCENCE; ULVA-ROTUNDATA; ELECTRON-TRANSPORT; FIELD EXPERIMENTS; O-2 EVOLUTION; QUANTUM YIELD; TEMPERATURE; MACROALGAE; RESPONSES

Features of Late Cenozoic Deepwater Sedimentation in Southern Qiongdongnan Basin, Northwestern South China Sea

Based on high resolution 2D and 3D seismic data acquired in recent years, using sequence stratigraphy analysis and geophysical methods, we discuss the features of Late Cenozoic deepwater sedimentation in the southern Qiongdongnan (sic) basin. The study area entered a bathyal slope environment in the Miocene. The channel developed in the Sanya (sic) Formation was controlled by a fault break, and its shingled seismic characteristics represent multiple erosion and fill, which may indicate that turbidite current developed in the slope environment. The polygon faults found in mudstone of the Meishan (sic) Formation represent the deepwater hungry sedimentary environment. The large-scale channels developed on the top of Huangliu (sic) Formation could be the result of a big sea level drop and an increase of sediment supply. The fantastic turbidite channel developed in Late Quaternary in the slope environment has "fan-like" body and long frontal tiny avulsion channel. The analysis of these features suggests that the sediment supply of the study area in the post-rifting period was dominant from the Vietnam uplift in the southwest. These deepwater sedimentary features could be potential reservoirs or migration pathways for deepwater petroleum systems.

Radiolarian distribution in surface sediments of the northern and central South China Sea

Radiolarian distribution in surface sediments of 104 stations from northern and central South China Sea show that the abundance and diversity of radiolarians increase with the water depth and are related to radiolarian concentrations from the water column, diminished terrigenous input, variability in calcareous shell content and the rate of silica and carbonate dissolution in the deep sea. According to the appearances of individual species in surface sediments at particular depths, seven faunal boundaries distribution are recognized at water depths of 100, 450, 650, 1000, 1200, 1400 and 2500 m. Four radiolarian assemblages in the sediments were identified by applying clustering procedures. Geographic distributions of these four assemblages coincide with present-day hydrologic features of the surface waters in this area.

Antifeedant, antibacterial, and antilarval compounds from the South China Sea seagrass Enhalus acoroides

We investigated chemical constituents and the antifeedant, antibacterial, and antilarval activities of EtOH (ethanol) extracts of the South China Sea seagrass Enhalus acoroides. Eleven pure compounds including four flavonoids and five steroids were obtained. Among these compounds, three flavonoids were antifeedant against second-instar larvae of Spodoptera litura, two flavonoids had antibacterial activity towards several marine bacteria, and one flavonoid showed strong antilarval activity against Bugula neritina larvae. This is the first description of isolation and bioactivity of secondary metabolites from E. acoroides.

A nonlinear model for assessing multiple probabilistic risks: A case study in South five-island of Changdao National Nature Reserve in China

Several methods for estimating the potential impacts caused by multiple probabilistic risks have been suggested. These existing methods mostly rely on the weight sum algorithm to address the need for integrated risk assessment. This paper develops a nonlinear model to perform such an assessment. The joint probability algorithm has been applied to the model development. An application of the developed model in South five-island of Changdao National Nature Reserve, China, combining remote sensing data and a GIS technique, provides a reasonable risk assessment. Based on the case study, we discuss the feasibility of the model. We propose that the model has the potential for use in identifying the regional primary stressor, investigating the most vulnerable habitat, and assessing the integrated impact of multiple stressors. (C) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Geophysical signatures associated with fluid flow and gas hydrate occurrence in a tectonically quiescent sequence, Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea

Interpretation of high-resolution two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) seismic data collected in the Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea reveals the presence of polygonal faults, pockmarks, gas chimneys and slope failure in strata of Pliocene and younger age. The gas chimneys are characterized by low-amplitude reflections, acoustic turbidity and low P-wave velocity indicating fluid expulsion pathways. Coherence time slices show that the polygonal faults are restricted to sediments with moderate-amplitude, continuous reflections. Gas hydrates are identified in seismic data by the presence of bottom simulating reflectors (BSRs), which have high amplitude, reverse polarity and are subparallel to seafloor. Mud diapirism and mounded structures have variable geometry and a great diversity regarding the origin of the fluid and the parent beds. The gas chimneys, mud diapirism, polygonal faults and a seismic facies-change facilitate the upward migration of thermogenic fluids from underlying sediments. Fluids can be temporarily trapped below the gas hydrate stability zone, but fluid advection may cause gas hydrate dissociation and affect the thickness of gas hydrate zone. The fluid accumulation leads to the generation of excess pore fluids that release along faults, forming pockmarks and mud volcanoes on the seafloor. These features are indicators of fluid flow in a tectonically-quiescent sequence, Qiongdongnan Basin. Geofluids (2010) 10, 351-368.

Tectonic Evolution and Dynamics of Deepwater Area of Pearl River Mouth Basin, Northern South China Sea

Quantitative studies on the evolution and dynamics of the deepwater area of Pearl River Mouth basin (PRMB) were carried out based on the latest geological and seismic data. The study area is generally in an extensional state during the Cenozoic. The major extension happened in the earlier syn-rift stages before 23 Ma and the extension after 23 Ma is negligible. Two rapid subsidence periods, 32-23 Ma and 5.3-2.6 Ma, are identified, which are related to the abrupt heat decay during margin breakup and the collision between the Philippine Sea plate and the Eurasian plate, respectively. The strongest crustal thinning in the Baiyun (sic) sag may trigger the syn-rift volcanism along the weak faulted belt around the sag. The Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the study area could be divided into five stages: rifting (similar to 50-40 Ma), rift-drift transition (similar to 40-32 Ma), early post-breakup (similar to 32-23 Ma), thermal subsidence (similar to 23-5.3 Ma) and neotectonic movement (similar to 5.3-0 Ma).

Characteristics and Formation Mechanism of Polygonal Faults in Qiongdongnan Basin, Northern South China Sea

Based on high-resolution 3D seismic data, we document the polygonal faults within the Miocene Meishan (sic) Formation and Huangliu (sic) Formation of the Qiongdongnan (sic) basin, northern South China Sea. Within the seismic section and time coherent slice, densely distributed extensional faults with small throw and polygonal shape were identified in map view. The orientation of the polygonal faults is almost isotropic, indicating a non-tectonic origin. The deformation is clearly layer-bounded, with horizontal extension of 11.2% to 16%, and 13.2% on average. The distribution of polygonal faults shows a negative correlation with that of gas chimneys. The development of polygonal faults may be triggered by over-pressure pore fluid which is restricted in the fine-grained sediments of bathyal facies when the sediments is compacted by the burden above. The polygonal faults developed to balance the volumetric contraction and restricted extension. The product of hydrocarbon in the Meishan Formation may have contributed to the development of the polygonal faults. In the study area, it was thought that the petroleum system of the Neogene post-rift sequence is disadvantageous because of poor migration pathway. However, the discovery of polygonal faults in the Miocene strata, which may play an important role on the fluid migration, may change this view. A new model of the petroleum system for the study area is proposed.

Extreme weathering/erosion during the Miocene Climatic Optimum: Evidence from sediment record in the South China Sea

Investigating the interplay between continental weathering and erosion, climate, and atmospheric CO2 concentrations is significant in understanding the mechanisms that force the Cenozoic global cooling and predicting the future climatic and environmental response to increasing temperature and CO2 levels. The Miocene represents an ideal test case as it encompasses two distinct extreme climate periods, the Miocene Climatic Optimum (MCO) with the warmest time since 35 Ma in Earth's history and the transition to the Late Cenozoic icehouse mode with the establishment of the east Antarctic ice sheet. However the precise role of continental weathering during this period of major climate change is poorly understood. Here we show changes in the rates of Miocene continental chemical weathering and physical erosion, which we tracked using the chemical index of alteration ( CIA) and mass accumulation rate ( MAR) respectively from Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 1146 and 1148 in the South China Sea. We found significantly increased CIA values and terrigenous MARs during the MCO (ca. 17-15 Ma) compared to earlier and later periods suggests extreme continental weathering and erosion at that time. Similar high rates were revealed in the early-middle Miocene of Asia, the European Alps, and offshore Angola. This suggests that rapid sedimentation during the MCO was a global erosion event triggered by climate rather than regional tectonic activity. The close coherence of our records with high temperature, strong precipitation, increased burial of organic carbon and elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration during the MCO argues for long-term, close coupling between continental silicate weathering, erosion, climate and atmospheric CO2 during the Miocene. Citation: Wan, S., W. M. Kurschner, P. D. Clift, A. Li, and T. Li (2009), Extreme weathering/ erosion during the Miocene Climatic Optimum: Evidence from sediment record in the South China Sea, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L19706, doi: 10.1029/2009GL040279.

Genetic model of the hydrate system in the fine grain sediments in the northern continental slope of South China Sea

Gas hydrate samples were obtained firstly in China by drilling on the northern margin of South China Sea (SCS). To understand the formation mechanism of this unique accumulation system, this paper discusses the factors controlling the formation of the system by accurate geophysical interpretation and geological analysis, based on the high precision 2-D and 3-D multichannel seismic data in the drilling area. There are three key factors controlling the accumulation of the gas hydrate system in fine grain sediment: (1) large volume of fluid bearing methane gas Joins the formation of gas hydrate. Active fluid flow in the northern South China Sea makes both thermal gas and/or biogenic gas migrate into shallow strata and form hydrate in the gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ). The fluid flow includes mud diapir and gas chimney structure. They are commonly characterized by positive topographic relief, acoustic turbidity and push-down, and low reflection intensity on seismic profiles. The gas chimneys can reach to GHSZ, which favors the development of BSRs. It means that the active fluid flow has a close relationship with the formation and accumulation of gas hydrate. (2) The episodic process of fracture plays an important role in the generation of gas hydrate. It may provide the passage along which thermogenic or biogenic gas migrated into gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) upward. And it increases the pore space for the growth of hydrate crystal. (3) Submarine landslide induced the anomalous overpressure activity and development of fracture in the GHSZ. The formation model of high concentration gas hydrate in the drilling sea area was proposed on the basis of above analysis.

Petroleum System in Deepwater Basins of the Northern South China Sea

The northern South China Sea margin has experienced a rifting stage and a post-rifting stage during the Cenozoic. In the rifting stage, the margin received lacustrine and shallow marine facies sediments. In the post-rifting thermal subsidence, the margin accumulated shallow marine facies and hemipelagic deposits, and the deepwater basins formed. Petroleum systems of deepwater setting have been imaged from seismic data and drill wells. Two kinds of source rocks including Paleogene lacustrine black shale and Oligocene-Early Miocene mudstone were developed in the deepwater basin of the South China Sea. The deepwater reservoirs are characterized by the deep sea channel rill, mass flow complexes and drowned reef carbonate platform. Profitable capping rocks on the top are mudstones with huge thickness in the post-rifting stage. Meanwhile, the faults developed during the rifting stage provide a migration path favourable for the formation of reservoirs. The analysis of seismic and drilling data suggests that the joint structural and stratigraphic traps could form giant hydrocarbon fields and hydrocarbon reservoirs including syn-rifting graben subaqueous delta, deepwater submarine fan sandstone and reef carbonate reservoirs.

Seismic characteristics of a reef carbonate reservoir and implications for hydrocarbon exploration in deepwater of the Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea

Our analysis of approximately 40,000 km of multichannel 2-D seismic data, reef oil-field seismic data, and data from several boreholes led to the identification of two areas of reef carbonate reservoirs in deepwater areas (water depth >= 500 in) of the Qiongdongnan Basin (QDNB), northern South China Sea. High-resolution sequence stratigraphic analysis revealed that the transgressive and highstand system tracts of the mid-Miocene Meishan Formation in the Beijiao and Ledong-Lingshui Depressions developed reef carbonates. The seismic features of the reef carbonates in these two areas include chaotic bedding, intermittent internal reflections, chaotic or blank reflections, mounded reflections, and apparent amplitude anomalies, similar to the seismic characteristics of the LH11-1 reef reservoir in the Dongsha Uplift and Island Reef of the Salawati Basin, Indonesia, which house large oil fields. The impedance values of reefs in the Beijiao and Ledong-Lingshui Depressions are 8000-9000 g/cc x m/s. Impedance sections reveal that the impedance of the LH11-1 reef reservoir in the northern South China Sea is 800010000 g/cc x m/s, whereas that of pure limestone in BD23-1-1 is > 10000 g/cc x m/s. The mid-Miocene paleogeography of the Beijiao Depression was dominated by offshore and neritic environments, with only part of the southern Beijiao uplift emergent at that time. The input of terrigenous sediments was relatively minor in this area, meaning that terrigenous source areas were insignificant in terms of the Beijiao Depression: reef carbonates were probably widely distributed throughout the depression, as with the Ledong-Lingshui Depression. The combined geological and geophysical data indicate that shelf margin atolls were well developed in the Beijiao Depression, as in the Ledong-Lingshui Depression where small-scale patch or pinnacle reefs developed. These reef carbonates are promising reservoirs, representing important targets for deepwater hydrocarbon exploration. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Fine-grained Pleistocene deepwater turbidite channel system on the slope of Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea

Recently, as oil exploitation has become focused on deepwater slope areas. more multi-channel high resolution 2D and 3D seismic data were acquired in the deepwater part of the Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea. Based on 3D seismic data and coherence time slice, RMS and 3D visualization, a series of deepwater channels were recognized on the slope that probably developed in the late Quaternary period. These channels trend SW-NE to W-E and show bifurcations, levees, meander loops and avulsions. High Amplitude Reflections (HARs), typical for channel-levee complexes, are of only minor importance and were observed in one of the channel systems. Most of the detected channels are characterized by low-amplitude reflections, and so are different from the typical coarse-grained turbidite channels that had been discovered worldwide. The absence of well data in the study area made it difficult to determine the age and lithology of these channels. Using a neighboring drill hole and published data about such depositional systems worldwide, the lithology of these channels is likely to be dominated by mudstones with interbedded thin sandstones. These channels are formed by turbidity currents originated from the little scale mountain river of mid-Vietnam in SW direction and were probably accompanied by a relative sea level drop in the last glacial age. These channels discovered on the northern South China Sea slope are likely to be fine-grained, mud-dominant and low N:G deposits in a deepwater paleogeographic setting. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Seismic stratigraphy of the Qiongdongnan deep sea channel system, northwest South China Sea

Based on more than 4000 km 2D seismic data and seismic stratigraphic analysis, we discussed the extent and formation mechanism of the Qiongdongnan deep sea channel. The Qiongdongnan deep sea channel is a large incised channel which extends from the east boundary of the Yinggehai Basin, through the whole Qiongdongnan and the Xisha trough, and terminates in the western part of the northwest subbasin of South China Sea. It is more than 570 km long and 4-8 km wide. The chaotic (or continuous) middle (or high) amplitude, middle (or high) continuity seismic facies of the channel reflect the different lithological distribution of the channel. The channel formed as a complex result of global sea level drop during early Pliocene, large scale of sediment supply to the Yinggehai Basin, inversion event of the Red River strike-slip fault, and tilted direction of the Qiongdongnan Basin. The large scale of sediment supply from Red River caused the shelf break of the Yinggehai Basin to move torwards the S and SE direction and developed large scale of prograding wedge from the Miocene, and the inversion of the Red River strike-slip fault induced the sediment slump which formed the Qiongdongnan deep sea channel.

Diversity of Both the Cultivable Protease-Producing Bacteria and Their Extracellular Proteases in the Sediments of the South China Sea

Protease-producing bacteria are known to play an important role in degrading sedimentary particular organic nitrogen, and yet, their diversity and extracellular proteases remain largely unknown. In this paper, the diversity of the cultivable protease-producing bacteria and their extracellular proteases in the sediments of the South China Sea was investigated. The richness of the cultivable protease-producing bacteria reached 10(6) cells/g in all sediment samples. Analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed that the predominant cultivated protease-producing bacteria are Gammaproteobacteria affiliated with the genera Pseudoalteromonas, Alteromonas, Marinobacter, Idiomarina, Halomonas, Vibrio, Shewanella, Pseudomonas, and Rheinheimera, with Alteromonas (34.6%) and Pseudoalteromonas (28.2%) as the predominant groups. Inhibitor analysis showed that nearly all the extracellular proteases from the bacteria are serine proteases or metalloproteases. Moreover, these proteases have different hydrolytic ability to different proteins, reflecting they may belong to different kinds of serine proteases or metalloproteases. To our knowledge, this study represents the first report of the diversity of bacterial proteases in deep-sea sediments.