The embryonic blood-CSF barrier has molecular elements for specific glucose transport and for the general transport of molecules via transcellular routes.

In vertebrates, early brain development takes place at the expanded anterior end of the neural tube, which is filled with embryonic cerebrospinal fluid (E-CSF). We have recently identified a transient blood-CSF barrier that forms between embryonic days E3 and E4 in chick embryos and that is responsible for the transport of proteins and control of E-CSF homeostasis, including osmolarity. Here we examined the presence of glucose transporter GLUT-1 as well the presence of caveolae-structural protein Caveolin1 (CAV-1) in the embryonic blood-CSF barrier which may be involved in the transport of glucose and of proteins, water and ions respectively across the neuroectoderm. In this paper we demonstrate the presence of GLUT-1 and CAV-1 in endothelial cells of blood vessels as well as in adjacent neuroectodermal cells, located in the embryonic blood-CSF barrier. In blood vessels, these proteins were detected as early as E4 in chick embryos and E12.7 in rat embryos, i.e. the point at which the embryonic blood-CSF barrier acquires this function. In the neuroectoderm of the embryonic blood-CSF barrier, GLUT-1 was also detected at E4 and E12.7 respectively, and CAV-1 was detected shortly thereafter in both experimental models. These experiments contribute to delineating the extent to which the blood-CSF embryonic barrier controls E-CSF composition and homeostasis during early stages of brain development in avians and mammals. Our results suggest the regulation of glucose transport to the E-CSF by means of GLUT-1 and also suggest a mechanism by which proteins are transported via transcellular routes across the neuroectoderm, thus reinforcing the crucial role of E-CSF in brain development.

Dose and time-dependent selective neurotoxicity induced by mephedrone in mice.

Mephedrone is a drug of abuse marketed as 'bath salts'. There are discrepancies concerning its long-term effects. We have investigated the neurotoxicity of mephedrone in mice following different exposition schedules. Schedule 1: four doses of 50 mg/kg. Schedule 2: four doses of 25 mg/kg. Schedule 3: three daily doses of 25 mg/kg, for two consecutive days. All schedules induced, in some animals, an aggressive behavior and hyperthermia as well as a decrease in weight gain. Mephedrone (schedule 1) induced dopaminergic and serotoninergic neurotoxicity that persisted 7 days after exposition. At a lower dose (schedule 2) only a transient dopaminergic injury was found. In the weekend consumption pattern (schedule 3), mephedrone induced dopamine and serotonin transporter loss that was accompanied by a decrease in tyrosine hydroxylase and tryptophan hydroxylase 2 expression one week after exposition. Also, mephedrone induced a depressive-like behavior, as well as a reduction in striatal D2 density, suggesting higher susceptibility to addictive drugs. In cultured cortical neurons, mephedrone induced a concentration-dependent cytotoxic effect. Using repeated doses for 2 days in an elevated ambient temperature we evidenced a loss of frontal cortex dopaminergic and hippocampal serotoninergic neuronal markers that suggest injuries at nerve endings.

Mephedrone pharmacokinetics after intravenous and oral administration in rats: relation to pharmacodynamics

Rationale Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) is a still poorly known drug of abuse, alternative to ecstasy or cocaine. Objective The major aims were to investigate the pharmacokineticsa and locomotor activity of mephedrone in rats and provide a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model. Methods Mephedrone was administered to male Sprague-Dawley rats intravenously (10 mg/kg) and orally (30 and 60 mg/kg). Plasma concentrations and metabolites were characterized using LC/MS and LC-MS/MS fragmentation patterns. Locomotor activity was monitored for 180-240 min. Results Mephedrone plasma concentrations after i.v. administration fit a two-compartment model (α=10.23 h−1, β=1.86 h−1). After oral administration, peak mephedrone concentrations were achieved between 0.5 and 1 h and declined to undetectable levels at 9 h. The absolute bioavailability of mephedrone was about 10 % and the percentage of mephedrone protein binding was 21.59±3.67%. We have identified five phase I metabolites in rat blood after oral administration. The relationship between brain levels and free plasma concentration was 1.85±0.08. Mephedrone induced a dose-dependent increase in locomotor activity, which lasted up to 2 h. The pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model successfully describes the relationship between mephedrone plasma concentrations and its psychostimulant effect. Conclusions We suggest a very important first-pass effect for mephedrone after oral administration and an easy access to the central nervous system. The model described might be useful in the estimation and prediction of the onset, magnitude,and time course of mephedrone pharmacodynamics as well as to design new animal models of mephedrone addiction and toxicity.

Heteromeric nicotinic receptors are involved in the sensitization and addictive properties of MDMA in mice

We have investigated the effect of nicotinic receptor ligands in the behavioral sensitization (hyperlocomotion) and rewarding properties (conditioned place preference paradigm, CPP) of 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) in mice. Each animal received intraperitoneal pretreatment with either saline, dihydro-β-erythroidine (DHβE, 1 mg/kg) or varenicline (VAR, 0.3 mg/kg), 15 min prior to subcutaneous saline or MDMA (5 mg/kg), for 10 consecutive days. On day 1, both DHβE and VAR inhibited the MDMA-induced hyperlocomotion. After 10 days of treatment, MDMA induced a hyperlocomotion that was not reduced (rather enhanced) in antagonist-pretreated animals. This early hyperlocomotion was accompanied by a significant increase in heteromeric nicotinic receptors in cortex that was not blocked by DHβE or VAR. Behavioral sensitization to MDMA was highest 2 weeks after the discontinuation of MDMA treatment. This additional increase in sensitivity was prevented in animals pretreated with DHβE or VAR. At this time, MDMA-treated mice showed a significant increase in heteromeric receptors in cortex that was prevented by DHβE and VAR. An involvement of α7 nicotinic receptors in this effect is ruled out. MDMA (10 mg/kg) induced positive CPP that was abolished by DHβE (2 mg/kg) and VAR (2 mg/kg). Moreover, chronic nicotine pretreatment (2 mg/kg, ip, b.i.d., for 14 days) caused MDMA, administered at a low dose (3 mg/kg), to induce CPP, which would otherwise not occur. Finally, present results point out that heteromeric nicotinic receptors are involved in locomotor sensitization and addictive potential induced by MDMA. Thus, varenicline might be a useful drug to treat both tobacco and MDMA abuse at once.

Heteromeric nicotinic receptors are involved in the sensitization and addictive properties of MDMA in mice

We have investigated the effect of nicotinic receptor ligands in the behavioral sensitization (hyperlocomotion) and rewarding properties (conditioned place preference paradigm, CPP) of 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) in mice. Each animal received intraperitoneal pretreatment with either saline, dihydro-β-erythroidine (DHβE, 1 mg/kg) or varenicline (VAR, 0.3 mg/kg), 15 min prior to subcutaneous saline or MDMA (5 mg/kg), for 10 consecutive days. On day 1, both DHβE and VAR inhibited the MDMA-induced hyperlocomotion. After 10 days of treatment, MDMA induced a hyperlocomotion that was not reduced (rather enhanced) in antagonist-pretreated animals. This early hyperlocomotion was accompanied by a significant increase in heteromeric nicotinic receptors in cortex that was not blocked by DHβE or VAR. Behavioral sensitization to MDMA was highest 2 weeks after the discontinuation of MDMA treatment. This additional increase in sensitivity was prevented in animals pretreated with DHβE or VAR. At this time, MDMA-treated mice showed a significant increase in heteromeric receptors in cortex that was prevented by DHβE and VAR. An involvement of α7 nicotinic receptors in this effect is ruled out. MDMA (10 mg/kg) induced positive CPP that was abolished by DHβE (2 mg/kg) and VAR (2 mg/kg). Moreover, chronic nicotine pretreatment (2 mg/kg, ip, b.i.d., for 14 days) caused MDMA, administered at a low dose (3 mg/kg), to induce CPP, which would otherwise not occur. Finally, present results point out that heteromeric nicotinic receptors are involved in locomotor sensitization and addictive potential induced by MDMA. Thus, varenicline might be a useful drug to treat both tobacco and MDMA abuse at once.

Síndrome de Fisher. A propósito de un caso

Los autores exponen el caso de un paciente de dos años de edad afecto de un cuadro clínico que cumplia todos los criterios diagnósticos del sindrome de Fisher. En esta entidad poco frecuente y de etiopatogenia desconocida se discute si la lesion asienta a nivel periférico -como en la polirradiculoneuritis del síndrome de Guillain-Barré- o por el contrario tiene lugar en el Sistema Nervioso Central. Los hallazgos clínicos en este caso, así como el resultado de alguno ae los exámenes complementarios, apoyan la participación central. La evolución hacia la recuperación fue lenta, pero favorable, como está descrito.

The L-type voltage-gated calcium channel modulates microglial pro-inflammatory activity

Under pathological conditions, microglia, the resident CNS immune cells, become reactive and release pro-inflammatory cytokines and neurotoxic factors. We investigated whether this phenotypic switch includes changes in the expression of the L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (VGCC) in a rat model of N-methyl-d-aspartate-induced hippocampal neurodegeneration. Double immunohistochemistry and confocal microscopy evidenced that activated microglia express the L-type VGCC. We then analyzed whether BV2 microglia express functional L-type VGCC, and investigated the latter's role in microglial cytokine release and phagocytic capacity. Activated BV2 microglia express the CaV1.2 and CaV1.3 subunits of the L-type VGCC determined by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, Western blot and immunocytochemistry. Depolarization with KCl induced a Ca2+ entry facilitated by Bay k8644 and partially blocked with nifedipine, which also reduced TNF-α and NO release by 40%. However, no nifedipine effect on BV2 microglia viability or phagocytic capacity was observed. Our results suggest that in CNS inflammatory processes, the L-type VGCC plays a specific role in the control of microglial secretory activity.

Most of the Abundant Protein Fractions of Embryonic Cerebrospinal Fluid are Produced Out of the Brain Anlagen

The microenvironment of the central nervous system is important for neuronal function and development. During the early stages of embryo development the cephalic vesicles are filled by embryonic cerebrospinal fluid, a complex fluid containing different protein fractions, which contributes to the regulation of the survival, proliferation and neurogenesis of neuroectodermal stem cells. The protein content of embryonic cerebrospinal fluid from chick and rat embryos at the start of neurogenesis has already been determined. Most of the identified gene products are thought to be involved in the regulation of developmental processes during embryogenesis. However, due to the crucial roles played by embryonic cerebrospinal fluid during brain development, the embryological origin of the gene products it contains remains an intriguing question. According to the literature most of these products are synthesised in embryonic tissues other than the neuroepithelium. In this study we examined the embryological origin of the most abundant embryonic cerebrospinal fluid protein fractions by means of slot-blot analysis and by using several different embryonic and extraembryonic protein extracts, immunodetected with polyclonal antibodies. This first attempt to elucidate their origin is not based on the proteins identified by proteomic methods, but rather on crude protein fractions detected by SDS-PAGE analysis and to which polyclonal antibodies were specifically generated. Despite some of the limitations of this study, i.e. that one protein fraction may contain more than one gene product, and that a specific gene product may be contained in different protein fractions depending on post-translational modifications, our results show that most of the analysed protein fractions are not produced by the cephalic neuroectoderm but are rather stored in the egg reservoir; furthermore, few are produced by embryo tissues, thus indicating that they must be transported from their production or storage sites to the cephalic cavities, most probably via embryonic serum. These results raise the question as to whether the transfer of proteins from these two embryo compartments is regulated at this early developmental stage.

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine enhances kainic acid convulsive susceptibility

Abstract Kainic acid (KA) causes seizures and neuronal loss in the hippocampus. The present study investigated whether a recreational schedule of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) favours the development of a seizure state in a model of KA-induced epilepsy and potentiates the toxicity profile of KA (20 or 30 mg/kg). Adolescent male C57BL/6 mice received saline or MDMA t.i.d. (s.c. every 3 h), on 1 day a week, for 4 consecutive weeks. Twenty-four hours after the last MDMA exposure, the animals were injected with saline or KA (20 or 30 mg/kg). After this injection, we evaluated seizures, hippocampal neuronal cell death, microgliosis, astrogliosis, and calcium binding proteins. MDMA pretreatment, by itself, did not induce neuronal damage but increased seizure susceptibility in all KA treatments and potentiated the presence of Fluoro-Jade-positive cells in CA1. Furthermore, MDMA, like KA, significantly decreased parvalbumin levels in CA1 and dentate gyrus, where it potentiated the effects of KA. The amphetamine derivative also promoted a transient decrease in calbindin and calretinin levels, indicative of an abnormal neuronal discharge. In addition, treatment of cortical neurons with MDMA (1050 μM) for 6 or 48 h significantly increased basal Ca2 +, reduced basal Na+ levels and potentiated kainate response. These results indicate that MDMA potentiates KA-induced neurodegeneration and also increases KA seizure susceptibility. The mechanism proposed includes changes in Calcium Binding Proteins expression, probably due to the disruption of intracellular ionic homeostasis, or/and an indirect effect through glutamate release.

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine enhances kainic acid convulsive susceptibility

Abstract Kainic acid (KA) causes seizures and neuronal loss in the hippocampus. The present study investigated whether a recreational schedule of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) favours the development of a seizure state in a model of KA-induced epilepsy and potentiates the toxicity profile of KA (20 or 30 mg/kg). Adolescent male C57BL/6 mice received saline or MDMA t.i.d. (s.c. every 3 h), on 1 day a week, for 4 consecutive weeks. Twenty-four hours after the last MDMA exposure, the animals were injected with saline or KA (20 or 30 mg/kg). After this injection, we evaluated seizures, hippocampal neuronal cell death, microgliosis, astrogliosis, and calcium binding proteins. MDMA pretreatment, by itself, did not induce neuronal damage but increased seizure susceptibility in all KA treatments and potentiated the presence of Fluoro-Jade-positive cells in CA1. Furthermore, MDMA, like KA, significantly decreased parvalbumin levels in CA1 and dentate gyrus, where it potentiated the effects of KA. The amphetamine derivative also promoted a transient decrease in calbindin and calretinin levels, indicative of an abnormal neuronal discharge. In addition, treatment of cortical neurons with MDMA (1050 μM) for 6 or 48 h significantly increased basal Ca2 +, reduced basal Na+ levels and potentiated kainate response. These results indicate that MDMA potentiates KA-induced neurodegeneration and also increases KA seizure susceptibility. The mechanism proposed includes changes in Calcium Binding Proteins expression, probably due to the disruption of intracellular ionic homeostasis, or/and an indirect effect through glutamate release.

Baixas doses de misoprostol vaginal (12,5 versus 25 mcg) para indução do parto a termo

OBJETIVO: comparar a efetividade de baixas doses de misoprostol vaginal (12,5 versus 25 mcg) para indução do trabalho de parto. MÉTODOS: ensaio clínico controlado, randomizado, duplo-cego, realizado entre maio de 2005 e abril de 2006. Foram incluídas 62 gestantes com gravidez a termo, membranas íntegras, que necessitaram de indução do parto. Foi administrado 25 mcg (32) ou 12,5 mcg de misoprostol (30), a cada quatro horas, até, no máximo, oito doses. Estudaram-se o tipo de parto, tempo entre o início da indução e o parto, complicações perinatais e efeitos maternos adversos. As variáveis de controle foram idades materna e gestacional, paridade e índice de Bishop. Os testes estatísticos utilizados foram cálculos de médias, desvios padrão e teste t de Student (variáveis numéricas contínuas), c² (variáveis categóricas) e Mann-Whitney (variáveis discretas). RESULTADOS: não houve diferença significante entre o Grupo de 12,5 e 25 mcg em relação ao intervalo de tempo entre a primeira dose e o parto (1.524 minutos versus 1.212 minutos, p=0,3), na freqüência de partos vaginais (70 versus 71,8%, p=0,7), no escore de Apgar inferior a sete ao quinto minuto (3,3 versus 6,25%, p=0,5) e na freqüência de taquissistolia (3,3 versus 6,2%, p=0,5). A média da dose total administrada de misoprostol foi significativamente maior no Grupo de 25 mcg (40 versus 61,2 mcg, p=0,03). CONCLUSÕES: misoprostol vaginal na dose de 12,5 mcg foi eficiente, com efeitos colaterais semelhante, à dose de 25 mcg de misoprostol vaginal, para indução do parto a termo.

Desenvolvimento embrionário em ratas tratadas com tacrolimus durante a fase de pré-implantação

OBJETIVO: avaliar a toxicidade do tacrolimus sobre o desenvolvimento embrionário em ratas tratadas durante o período de trânsito tubário. MÉTODOS: sessenta ratas Wistar foram distribuídas em quatro grupos (15 animais cada), que receberam diferentes doses de tacrolimus por via intragástrica: (T1) 1,0 mg/kg/dia, (T2) 2,0 mg/kg/dia e (T3) 4,0 mg/kg/dia. O grupo controle (C) recebeu água destilada. As ratas foram observadas diariamente para detectar sinais clínicos de toxicidade. O tratamento foi realizado do primeiro ao quinto dia de gestação. As seguintes variáveis maternas foram analisadas: peso corporal, de ovários, fígados e rins, consumo de alimento, número de corpos lúteos, implantes, fetos vivos e mortos e índice de implantação. Os fetos e placentas foram pesados e os primeiros foram observados para detectar malformações externas. Estatística: análise de variância (ANOVA), uma via, seguida de teste de Dunnett (alfa=0,05). RESULTADOS: não ocorreram indícios clínicos de toxicidade materna, tais como perda de peso, redução do consumo de alimento ou do peso de órgãos (p>0,05). Também não houve diferença significativa no peso corporal dos fetos (C: 1,8±0,6; T1: 2,2±0,5; T2: 1,9±0,5 e T3: 2,0±0,5 g) e de placentas (C: 1,6±0,4; T1: 1,5±0,4; T2: 1,8±0,4 e T3: 1,6±0,4 g), com p>0,05. Nenhuma malformação externa foi detectada. CONCLUSÕES: a administração de tacrolimus a ratas prenhes durante o período de trânsito tubário não parece ter qualquer efeito tóxico e materno ou embrionário.

Efeito da tibolona sobre parâmetros doplervelocimétricos das artérias oftálmica e retiniana

OBJETIVO: avaliar o efeito do uso da tibolona sobre os parâmetros doplervelocimétricos das artérias oftálmica e retiniana. MÉTODOS: realizou-se ensaio clínico, prospectivo, longitudinal, aleatorizado, controlado com placebo, duplo-cego, no qual dentre 100 mulheres na menopausa, 50 usaram o princípio ativo tibolona 2,5 mg (Grupo Tib) e 50, o placebo para formar o grupo controle (Grupo Plac). No Grupo Tib, das 50 mulheres que iniciaram o estudo, 44 retornaram após 84 dias para a finalização dos exames. No Grupo Plac retornaram 47 delas. As artérias oftálmica e retiniana foram estudadas, determinando-se o índice de resistência (IR), índice de pulsatilidade (IP) e relação sístole/diástole (S/D). As aferições foram feitas antes e 84 dias após a medicação. Utilizou-se o teste t de Student para amostras independentes na comparação das medianas entre os grupos e para amostras dependentes na comparação entre as medianas dentro do mesmo grupo. RESULTADOS: as características das mulheres nos dois grupos foram semelhantes em relação à idade, ao tempo de menopausa, ao índice de massa corporal, à pressão arterial, à paridade e à freqüência cardíaca. O Grupo Tib apresentou as seguintes medianas: IR(pré)=0,71±0,05, IR(pós)=0,72±0,08 (p=0,43); IP(pré)=1,29±0,22, IP(pós)=1,30±0,25 (p=0,4) e SD(pré)=3,49±0,77, SD(pós)=3,65±0,94 (p=0,32). Na artéria retiniana foram obtidas as seguintes medianas na artéria oftálmica: IR(pré)=0,67±0,09, IR(pós)=0,69±0,10 (p=0,7); IP(pré)=1,20±0,29, IP(pós)=1,22±0,3 (p=0,2) e SD(pré)=3,29±0,95, SD(pós)=3,30±1,07 (p=0,3). Os grupos tibolona e controle não apresentaram diferenças significantes nos índices quando avaliados ao final do estudo. CONCLUSÕES: a tibolona, na dose de 2,5 mg, não apresenta efeitos sobre os índices doppler das artérias oftálmica e retiniana.

Efeito da tibolona sobre o endométrio de ratas castradas

OBJETIVO: avaliar o efeito do uso prolongado de alta dose de tibolona na morfologia do endométrio em ratas castradas. MÉTODOS: foram utilizadas 15 ratas Wistar, fêmeas, com idade de oito semanas e peso médio de 250 g. Todas as ratas foram submetidas à ooforectomia bilateral e 30 dias depois foi coletada citologia vaginal, verificando-se o status de menopausa. As ratas foram divididas aleatoriamente em dois grupos: o tratado (n=9) recebeu via oral 1 mg tibolona/dia; o controle (n=6) recebeu apenas solução do veículo carboximetilcelulose. Após 20 semanas de tratamento, todos os animais foram sedados e sacrificados por deslocamento cervical. Os úteros foram retirados e fixados em formol 10% tamponado. Ambos os cornos uterinos foram clivados em três regiões (proximal, medial, distal) e processados para inclusão em parafina. Cortes histológicos corados com hematoxilina-eosina foram submetidos à análise morfológica e morfométrica. Foram avaliados os seguintes parâmetros: espessura do epitélio superficial endometrial, espessura do estroma endometrial, área endometrial, número absoluto de glândulas endometriais e número de glândulas/área endometrial. Os dados obtidos foram comparados mediante o teste t de Student. RESULTADOS: no Grupo Tibolona os úteros se apresentaram bem desenvolvidos e houve aumento significativo (p<0,01) de todos os parâmetros histomorfométricos. Por vezes, o epitélio cilíndrico tornava-se estratificado pavimentoso e recobria porções internas das glândulas bem como a cavidade endometrial. As ratas do Grupo Controle apresentaram útero atrofiado. Havia poucas glândulas de padrão tubular e escassa substância intercelular. As glândulas eram revestidas de epitélio cúbico que se estendia à cavidade endometrial. CONCLUSÕES: a tibolona em alta dose administrada por um longo período de tempo à ratas castradas tem efeito estrogênico, que pode ser dose-dependente, e causa proliferação no endométrio e alteração da diferenciação celular (metaplasia escamosa), porém não leva à hiperplasia.

Fatores associados ao uso de álcool e cigarro na gestação

OBJETIVO: descrever o consumo de álcool e cigarro em gestantes adultas e identificar a associação desse consumo ao resultado obstétrico. MÉTODOS: trata-se de um estudo analítico do tipo transversal, no qual foram incluídas 433 puérperas adultas e seus conceptos atendidos em maternidade pública do Rio de Janeiro, no período de 1999 a 2006. As informações sobre as puérperas e os recém-nascidos foram coletadas no momento do parto e no puerpério, por meio de entrevista e consultas aos prontuários. Considerou-se "uso de álcool na gestação" e "uso de cigarro na gestação" quando esses foram detectados pelo profissional de Saúde na consulta de pré-natal em qualquer idade gestacional e registrados no prontuário. RESULTADOS: verificou-se que 5,5 e 7,4% das puérperas relataram uso de cigarro e álcool durante a gestação, respectivamente. As características maternas associadas ao fumo na gestação foram: situação marital (p=0,005); idade materna (p=0,01) e assistência nutricional pré-natal (p=0,003). O fumo durante a gestação foi fortemente associado ao uso do álcool, sendo que 31,3% das gestantes fizeram uso concomitante de cigarro e álcool (p<0,05). Quanto ao uso de álcool, as características associadas a essa prática foram situação marital (p=0,003); e história de aborto (p=0,04). Não foi verificada associação entre o uso de álcool e cigarro na gestação e as condições ao nascer (idade gestacional, peso ao nascer e intercorrências com o recém-nascido, p>0,05). CONCLUSÕES: os achados sugerem que o uso de cigarro e álcool na gestação deve ser investigado na assistência pré-natal dentre todas as mulheres, especialmente entre as que vivem sem o companheiro, com mais de 35 anos, com história de aborto, e que não planejaram a gestação. A assistência nutricional mostrou efeito protetor contra o tabagismo na gestação, de forma que as gestantes devem ser esclarecidas quanto aos efeitos deletérios de tais substâncias contribuindo dessa forma para melhores resultados obstétricos.