Synthesis and characterisation of interfacial layers in organic solar cells

The quest for renewable energy sources has led to growing attention in the research of organic photovoltaics (OPVs), as a promising alternative to fossil fuels, since these devices have low manufacturing costs and attractive end-user qualities, such as ease of installation and maintenance. Wide application of OPVs is majorly limited by the devices lifetime. With the development of new encapsulation materials, some degradation factors, such as water and oxygen ingress, can almost be excluded, whereas the thermal degradation of the devices remains a major issue. Two aspects have to be addressed to solve the problem of thermal instability: bulk effects in the photoactive layer and interfacial effects at the photoactive layer/charge-transporting layers. In this work, the interface between photoactive layer and electron-transporting zinc oxide (ZnO) in devices with inverted architecture was engineered by introducing polymeric interlayers, based on zinc-binding ligands, such as 3,4-dihydroxybenzene and 8-hydroxyquinoline. Also, a cross-linkable layer of poly(3,4-dimethoxystyrene) and its fullerene derivative were studied. At first, controlled reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerisation was employed to achieve well-defined polymers in a range of molar masses, all bearing a chain-end functionality for further modifications. Resulting polymers have been fully characterised, including their thermal and optical properties, and introduced as interlayers to study their effect on the initial device performance and thermal stability. Poly(3,4-dihydroxystyrene) and its fullerene derivative were found unsuitable for application in devices as they increased the work function of ZnO and created a barrier for electron extraction. On the other hand, their parental polymer, poly(3,4-dimethoxystyrene), and its fullerene derivative, upon cross-linking, resulted in enhanced efficiency and stability of devices, if compared to control. Polymers based on 8-hydroxyquinoline ligand had a negative effect on the initial stability of the devices, but increased the lifetime of the cells under accelerated thermal stress. Comprehensive studies of the key mechanisms, determining efficiency, such as charge generation and extraction, were performed by using time-resolved electrical and spectroscopic techniques, in order to understand in detail the effect of the interlayers on the device performance. Obtained results allow deeper insight into mechanisms of degradation that limit the lifetime of devices and prompt the design of better materials for the interface stabilisation.

Identification of the degradation mechanisms of organic solar cells:active layer and interfacial layers

Organic Solar Cells (OSCs) represent a photovoltaic technology with multiple interesting application properties. However, the establishment of this technology into the market is subject to the achievement of operational lifetimes appropriate to their application purposes. Thus, comprehensive understanding of the degradation mechanisms occurring in OSCs is mandatory in both selecting more intrinsically stable components and/or device architectures and implementing strategies that mitigate the encountered stability issues. Inverted devices can suffer from mechanical stress and delamination at the interface between the active layer, e.g. poly(3-hexylthiophene):[6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (P3HT:PCBM), and the hole transport layer, e.g. poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(p-styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS). This work proposes the incorporation of a thin adhesive interlayer, consisting of a diblock copolymer composed of a P3HT block and a thermally-triggerable, alkyl-protected PSS block. In this context, the synthesis of poly(neopentyl p-styrene sulfonate) (PNSS) with controlled molar mass and low dispersity (Ð ≤ 1.50) via Reversible Addition-Fragmentation chain Transfer (RAFT) polymerisation has been extensively studied. Subsequently, Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) was explored to characterise the thermal deprotection of P3HT-b-PNSS thin layers to yield amphiphilic P3HT-b-PSS, indicating that surface deprotection prior to thermal treatment could occur. Finally, structural variation of the alkyl protecting group in PSS allowed reducing the thermal treatment duration from 3 hours (P3HT-b-PNSS) to 45 minutes for the poly(isobutyl p-styrene sulfonate) (PiBSS) analogous copolymer. Another critical issue regarding the stability of OSCs is the sunlight-driven chemical degradation of the active layer. In the study herein, the combination of experimental techniques and theoretical calculations has allowed identification of the structural weaknesses of poly[(4,4’- bis(2-ethylhexyl) dithieno [3,2-b:2’,3’-d]silole)-2,6-diyl-alt-(4,7-bis(2-thienyl)-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole)-5,5’-diyl], Si-PCPDTBT, upon photochemical treatment in air. Additionally, the study of the relative photodegradation rates in air of a series of polymers with systematically modified backbones and/or alkyl side chains has shown no direct correlation between chemical structure and stability. It is proposed instead that photostability is highly dependent on the crystalline character of the deposited films. Furthermore, it was verified that photostability of blends based on these polymers is dictated by the (de)stabilising effect that [6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) has over each polymer. Finally, a multiscale analysis on the degradation of solar cells based on poly[4,4' bis(2- ethylhexyl) dithieno[3,2-b:2',3'-d]silole)-2,6-diyl-alt-[2,5 bis(3 tetradecylthiophen 2-yl)thiazole[5,4-d]thiazole)-1,8-diyl] and PCBM, indicated that by judicious selection of device layers, architectures, and encapsulation materials, operational lifetimes up to 3.3 years with no efficiency losses can be successfully achieved.

Tájindikátorok alkalmazása a tájképvédelmi területek lehatárolására és a tájkarakter meghatározására

A Kárpát-medence Európa egyik jellegzetes, kulturális és természeti adottságokban gazdag sokszínű térsége. A globalizációval, a beépítés növekedésével, a környezetszennyezés fokozódásával azonban a hazai tájakat, tájképet is az átalakulás veszélye fenyegeti. A hagyományos tájkép megőrzése, a jellegzetes tájkarakter fejlesztése komplex feladat, és a különböző szakterületek összefogását követeli meg. A tájkép, mint vizuális természeti erőforrás rendszerint nem jelenik meg a különböző ágazati tervekben. A tájképpel, mint „korlátlanul rendelkezésre álló” erőforrással nem gazdálkodtak. A gazdasági-, gazdaságossági számításokba, a beruházások hatáselemzéseibe, a terület- és településrendezési tervekbe, a vizuális környezetet érintő legtöbb döntésbe nem került be a tájképet módosító hatások vizsgálata. A tájkép ugyanakkor mint gazdasági erőforrás, felértékelődik, és egyre inkább hangsúlyt kap. A hagyományos tájkép megőrzése, a jellegzetes tájkarakter fejlesztése a tájtervezés, a műemlékvédelem, az építészet, az üdülés-idegenforgalom és a környezettervezés egyre fontosabb területévé válik. A tájkép elődeink hosszantartó évezredes tájformáló tevékenysége, munkája során alakult. A táj (kultúrtáj) szerkezete, karaktere mindenkor lenyomata, tükrözője a megelőző korok tájhasználatának. A jelenkori táj (és annak vizuális megjelenése, a tájkép) történeti folyamatok eredményeképpen jött létre. Megőrzése és fejlesztése nemcsak gazdasági érdek, hanem a nemzeti örökség védelmét, az identitástudat megőrzését, a lokálpatriotizmust is jelenti. A látvány (a táj és a tájkép) olyan köztulajdon, nemzeti kincs, amelynek vizsgálatával, értékelésével, védelmével, fejlesztésének kérdéseivel tudományos szinten is szükséges foglalkozni. Az értékelés, védelem, jogi szabályozás jelenlegi hiánya miatt a látvány, a tájkép az egyik legrohamosabban pusztuló környezeti erőforrás.

Sorption characteristics of a nonionic surfactant during remediation of contaminated soil with different organic content

Surfactant enhanced subsurface remediation has gained importance in soil remediation. Since surfactants can be sorbed on soils, the concentration of free surfactant could drop below the critical micelle concentration, CMC, which may reduce the ability of the surfactant to solubilize the contaminants in soils. ^ The main goal of this research was to study the factors affecting the surfactant sorption on soil such as surfactant concentration, soil organic content, and organic contaminants in soil and to determine the organic contaminants removed from soils by surfactant. The results would be served as the basis for the implementation of a future study in the pilot scale and field scale for surfactant enhanced subsurface remediation. ^ This research study investigated the relationship between the organic content of soils and the sorption characteristics of a nonionic surfactant, Triton X-100. The experiments were performed using uncontaminated soils and soil contaminated with naphthalene and decane. The first part of the experiments were conducted in batch mode utilizing surface tension technique to determine the CMC of surfactant Triton X-100 and the effective CMC in the soil/aqueous system. The sorption of Triton X-100 was calculated from the surface tension measurements. The second part of the experiments utilized the SPME/GC/FID technique to determine the concentration of the contaminants solubilized from the soils by the surfactant Triton X-100 at different concentrations. ^ The results indicated that when the concentration of surfactant was lower than the CMC, the amount of surfactant sorbed on soil increased with the increasing surfactant concentration and the surfactant sorption characteristics of the uncontaminated soils could be modeled by the Freundlich isotherm. For the contaminated soils, the amount of surfactant sorbed was higher than those for the uncontaminated soils. The amount of surfactant sorbed on soils also depends on the organic content in the soils. The higher the organic content in the soil, higher is the amount of surfactant sorbed onto the soil. When the concentration of surfactant was higher than the CMC, the amount of surfactant added into the soil/aqueous system will increase the number of micelle and it increase the solubilization of organic contaminant from the soils. The ratio of the moles of organic contaminant solubilized to the moles of surfactant present as micelles is called the molar solubilization ratio (MSR). MSR value for naphthalene was about 0.16 for the soil-water systems. The organic content of soil did not appear to affect MSR for naphthalene. On the other hand, the MSR values for decane were 0.52, 0.39 and 0.38 for soils with 25%, 50% and 75% organic content, respectively. ^

Caracterização físico-química de sistemas micelares

The process of adsorption and micellization of the surfactants sodium dodecyl sulfate, dodecylammonium chloride and hexaethylene glycol mono-n-dodecyl ether in water-air interface has been studied using measurements of surface tension in aqueous media and NaCl 0.1 mol/L in temperatures of 25, 33 and 40 °C. From these data, critical micelle concentrations and thermodynamic parameters of micellization and adsorption were determined in order to elucidate the behaviors of micellization and adsorption for these surfactants in the proposed medium. For the determination of the thermodynamic parameters of adsorption we utilized the equations of isotherms of Langmuir and Gibbs. Γmáx values determined by the different equations were correlated to the explanation of results. Temperature and salinity were analyzed in terms of their influence on the micellization and adsorption process, and the results were explained based on intermolecular interactions. The values of Gmic have confirmed that the micelle formation for the surfactants studied occurs spontaneously

Elucidação molecular e micelar dos superagregados de anfotericina B

A Anfotericina B (AmB) é amplamente utilizada no tratamento de infecções fúngicas sistêmicas. No entanto, a sua utilização é limitada devido a sua elevada toxicidade aguda e crônica. Os superagregados de AmB (H-AmB) obtido pelo processo de aquecimento controlado apresentam um potencial reduzido de toxicidade quando comparados à Anfotericina B micelar não aquecida (M-AmB). Diante do exposto, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar as características físico-químicas do processo de formação dos superagregados após a liofilização do H-AmB, por meio de técnicas tais como a calorimetria de exploratória diferencial (DSC), termogravimetria (TG) e análise térmica diferencial (DTG), ressonância magnética nuclear (RMN), espalhamento dinâmico de luz (DLS) e difração de raios X (DRX). Os dados de DLS indicaram um tamanho de aproximadamente 260 nm deste novo sistema, sendo este tamanho compatível e viável para administração intravenosa. A análise de DRX demonstrou a formação de um novo estado cristalino do sistema micelar, podendo este estar relacionado a presença de grande proporção de desoxicolato de sódio (NaDC) na formulação. O aquecimento do NaDC resulta na formação de uma estrutura helicoidal intermolecular, promovendo desta forma o aumento da agregação micelar e consequentemente aumento de seu tamanho. Os estudos das análises térmicas demonstraram que o processo de aquecimento não influência no comportamento das amostras. Os dados de RMN da H-AmB demonstraram a presença de ácido desoxicólico além do NaDC. O ácido desoxicólico é formado após o processo de aquecimento e sugere-se que o equilíbrio entre ambas as moléculas seja responsável pela redução da toxicidade da AmB. Os resultados aqui apresentados sugerem que o processo de aquecimento controlado altera a organização estrutural das micelas, resultando na diminuição da toxicidade, na melhoria da estabilidade térmica e na manutenção da atividade.

Elucidação molecular e micelar dos superagregados de anfotericina B

A Anfotericina B (AmB) é amplamente utilizada no tratamento de infecções fúngicas sistêmicas. No entanto, a sua utilização é limitada devido a sua elevada toxicidade aguda e crônica. Os superagregados de AmB (H-AmB) obtido pelo processo de aquecimento controlado apresentam um potencial reduzido de toxicidade quando comparados à Anfotericina B micelar não aquecida (M-AmB). Diante do exposto, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar as características físico-químicas do processo de formação dos superagregados após a liofilização do H-AmB, por meio de técnicas tais como a calorimetria de exploratória diferencial (DSC), termogravimetria (TG) e análise térmica diferencial (DTG), ressonância magnética nuclear (RMN), espalhamento dinâmico de luz (DLS) e difração de raios X (DRX). Os dados de DLS indicaram um tamanho de aproximadamente 260 nm deste novo sistema, sendo este tamanho compatível e viável para administração intravenosa. A análise de DRX demonstrou a formação de um novo estado cristalino do sistema micelar, podendo este estar relacionado a presença de grande proporção de desoxicolato de sódio (NaDC) na formulação. O aquecimento do NaDC resulta na formação de uma estrutura helicoidal intermolecular, promovendo desta forma o aumento da agregação micelar e consequentemente aumento de seu tamanho. Os estudos das análises térmicas demonstraram que o processo de aquecimento não influência no comportamento das amostras. Os dados de RMN da H-AmB demonstraram a presença de ácido desoxicólico além do NaDC. O ácido desoxicólico é formado após o processo de aquecimento e sugere-se que o equilíbrio entre ambas as moléculas seja responsável pela redução da toxicidade da AmB. Os resultados aqui apresentados sugerem que o processo de aquecimento controlado altera a organização estrutural das micelas, resultando na diminuição da toxicidade, na melhoria da estabilidade térmica e na manutenção da atividade.

Avaliação da influência de surfactantes químico e biológico na hidrólise enzimática de casca de coco verde após pré-tratamento ácido/alcalino e com peróxido de hidrogênio alcalino

In Brazil many types of bioproducts and agroindustrial waste are generated currently, such as cacashew apple bagasse and coconut husk, for example. The final disposal of these wastes causes serious environmental issues. In this sense, waste lignocellulosic content, as the shell of the coconut is a renewable and abundant raw material in which its use has an increased interest mainly for the 2nd generation ethanol production. The hydrolysis of cellulose to reducing sugars such as glucose and xylose is catalysed by a group of enzymes called cellulases. However, the main bottleneck in the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose is the significant deactivation of the enzyme that shows irreversible adsorption mechanism leading to reduction of the cellulose adsorption onto cellulose. Studies have shown that the use of surfactants can modify the surface property of the cellulose therefore minimizing the irreversible binding. The main objective of the present study was to evaluate the influence of chemical and biological surfactants during the hydrolysis of coconut husk which was subjected to two pre-treatment in order to improve the accessibility of the enzymes to the cellulose, removing this way, part of the lignin and hemicellulose present in the structure of the material. The pre-treatments applied to coconut bagasse were: Acid/Alkaline using 0.6M H2SO4 followed by 1M NaOH, and the one with Alkaline Hydrogen Peroxide at a concentration of 7.35% (v/v) and pH 11.5. Both the material no treatment and pretreated were characterized using analysis of diffraction X-ray (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and methods established by NREL. The influence of both surfactants, chemical and biological, was used at concentrations below the critical micelle concentration (CMC), and the concentrations equal to the CMC. The application of pre-treatment with coconut residue was efficient for the conversion to glucose, as well as for the production of total reducing sugars, it was possible to observe that the pretreatment fragmented the structure as well as disordered the fibers. Regarding XRD analysis, a significant increase in crystallinity index was observed for pretreated bagasse acid/alkali (51.1%) compared to the no treatment (31.7%), while that for that treated with PHA, the crystallinity index was slightly lower, around 29%. In terms of total reducing sugars it was not possible to observe a significant difference between the hydrolysis carried out without the use of surfactant compared to the addition of Triton and rhamnolipid. However, by observing the conversions achieved during the hydrolysis, it was noted that the best conversion was using the rhamnolipíd for the husk pretreated with acid/alkali, reaching a value of 33%, whereas using Triton the higher conversion was 23.8%. The coconut husk is a residue which can present a high potential to the 2nd generation ethanol production, being the rhamonolipid a very efficient biosurfactant for use as an adjuvant in the enzymatic process in order to act on the material structure reducing its recalcitrance and therefore improving the conditions of access for enzymes to the substrate increasing thus the conversion of cellulose to glucose.

Avaliação da influência de surfactantes químico e biológico na hidrólise enzimática de casca de coco verde após pré-tratamento ácido/alcalino e com peróxido de hidrogênio alcalino

In Brazil many types of bioproducts and agroindustrial waste are generated currently, such as cacashew apple bagasse and coconut husk, for example. The final disposal of these wastes causes serious environmental issues. In this sense, waste lignocellulosic content, as the shell of the coconut is a renewable and abundant raw material in which its use has an increased interest mainly for the 2nd generation ethanol production. The hydrolysis of cellulose to reducing sugars such as glucose and xylose is catalysed by a group of enzymes called cellulases. However, the main bottleneck in the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose is the significant deactivation of the enzyme that shows irreversible adsorption mechanism leading to reduction of the cellulose adsorption onto cellulose. Studies have shown that the use of surfactants can modify the surface property of the cellulose therefore minimizing the irreversible binding. The main objective of the present study was to evaluate the influence of chemical and biological surfactants during the hydrolysis of coconut husk which was subjected to two pre-treatment in order to improve the accessibility of the enzymes to the cellulose, removing this way, part of the lignin and hemicellulose present in the structure of the material. The pre-treatments applied to coconut bagasse were: Acid/Alkaline using 0.6M H2SO4 followed by 1M NaOH, and the one with Alkaline Hydrogen Peroxide at a concentration of 7.35% (v/v) and pH 11.5. Both the material no treatment and pretreated were characterized using analysis of diffraction X-ray (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and methods established by NREL. The influence of both surfactants, chemical and biological, was used at concentrations below the critical micelle concentration (CMC), and the concentrations equal to the CMC. The application of pre-treatment with coconut residue was efficient for the conversion to glucose, as well as for the production of total reducing sugars, it was possible to observe that the pretreatment fragmented the structure as well as disordered the fibers. Regarding XRD analysis, a significant increase in crystallinity index was observed for pretreated bagasse acid/alkali (51.1%) compared to the no treatment (31.7%), while that for that treated with PHA, the crystallinity index was slightly lower, around 29%. In terms of total reducing sugars it was not possible to observe a significant difference between the hydrolysis carried out without the use of surfactant compared to the addition of Triton and rhamnolipid. However, by observing the conversions achieved during the hydrolysis, it was noted that the best conversion was using the rhamnolipíd for the husk pretreated with acid/alkali, reaching a value of 33%, whereas using Triton the higher conversion was 23.8%. The coconut husk is a residue which can present a high potential to the 2nd generation ethanol production, being the rhamonolipid a very efficient biosurfactant for use as an adjuvant in the enzymatic process in order to act on the material structure reducing its recalcitrance and therefore improving the conditions of access for enzymes to the substrate increasing thus the conversion of cellulose to glucose.

I materiali a memoria di forma: caratterizzazione e applicazione nel mondo dell'automazione

L'obiettivo di questo lavoro di tesi è stato studiare le caratteristiche, le proprietà, le applicazioni con conseguenti vantaggi e svantaggi di un particolare tipo di smart materials: i materiali a memoria di forma. Il capitolo 1 tratterà delle leghe metalliche a memoria di forma, il successivo si concentrerà invece sui polimeri a memoria di forma. In ognuno di questi, relativamente al materiale affrontato, si presterà particolare attenzione agli “effetti” che contraddistinguono tali materiali da quelli più comuni, come l’effetto memoria di forma o la superelasticità. Successivamente, nei vari sottoparagrafi, l’attenzione si sposterà sulle tecniche di caratterizzazione, utili per capire le proprietà di una lega o di un polimero rispetto ad un altro, e sulle conseguenti classificazioni di entrambi. Per quanto riguarda i polimeri, si accenneranno certi parametri fondamentali di cui è necessario tener conto per conoscere bene il polimero considerato. La trattazione, in ambedue i casi, terminerà con un focus sulle applicazioni più diffuse e su quelle più interessanti di tali materiali, fornendo dettagli sulle tecnologie utilizzate e sugli stimoli dettati per eccitare i sistemi.

Reminder and 2AFC tasks provide similar estimates of the difference limen: a reanalysis of data from Lapid, Ulrich, and Rammsayer (2008) and a discussion of Ulrich and Vorberg (2009)

Lapid, Ulrich, and Rammsayer (2008) reported that estimates of the difference limen (DL) from a two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) task are higher than those obtained from a reminder task. This article reanalyzes their data in order to correct an error in their estimates of the DL from 2AFC data. We also extend the psychometric functions fitted to data from both tasks to incorporate an extra parameter that has been shown to allow obtaining accurate estimates of the DL that are unaffected by lapses. Contrary to Lapid et al.'s conclusion, our reanalysis shows that DLs estimated with the 2AFC task are only minimally (and not always significantly) larger than those estimated with the reminder task. We also show that their data are contaminated by response bias, and that the small remaining difference between DLs estimated with 2AFC and reminder tasks can be reasonably attributed to the differential effects that response bias has in either task as they were defined in Lapid et al.'s experiments. Finally, we discuss a novel approach presented by Ulrich and Vorberg (2009) for fitting psychometric functions to 2AFC discrimination data.

Highly stable PEGylated gold nanoparticles in water: applications in biology and catalysis

Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) with diameters ranging between 5-60 nm have been synthesised in water, and further stabilized with polyethylene glycol-based thiol polymers (mPEG-SH). Successful PEGylation of the Au NPs was confirmed by Dynamic Light scattering (DLS) and Zeta potential measurements. PEG coating of the Au NPs is the key of their colloidal stabilty, and its successful applications. Catalytic efficiency testing of the PEG-AuNPs were carried out on homocoupling of boronic acid. PEG-Au NPs with AuNps diameter < 30 nm were useful as catalyst in water. Finally, the PEG-Au NPs were also shown to be stable in biological fluid and not cytotoxic on B16.F10 cell line, making them attractive for further studies.

BDNF-TrkB Signaling in Single-Spine Structural Plasticity

Multiple lines of evidence reveal that activation of the tropomyosin related kinase B (TrkB) receptor is a critical molecular mechanism underlying status epilepticus (SE) induced epilepsy development. However, the cellular consequences of such signaling remain unknown. To this point, localization of SE-induced TrkB activation to CA1 apical dendritic spines provides an anatomic clue pointing to Schaffer collateral-CA1 synaptic plasticity as one potential cellular consequence of TrkB activation. Here, we combine two-photon glutamate uncaging with two photon fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (2pFLIM) of fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based sensors to specifically investigate the roles of TrkB and its canonical ligand brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in dendritic spine structural plasticity (sLTP) of CA1 pyramidal neurons in cultured hippocampal slices of rodents. To begin, we demonstrate a critical role for post-synaptic TrkB and post-synaptic BDNF in sLTP. Building on these findings, we develop a novel FRET-based sensor for TrkB activation that can report both BDNF and non-BDNF activation in a specific and reversible manner. Using this sensor, we monitor the spatiotemporal dynamics of TrkB activity during single-spine sLTP. In response to glutamate uncaging, we report a rapid (onset less than 1 minute) and sustained (lasting at least 20 minutes) activation of TrkB in the stimulated spine that depends on N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR)-Ca2+/Calmodulin dependent kinase II (CaMKII) signaling as well as post-synaptically synthesized BDNF. Consistent with these findings, we also demonstrate rapid, glutamate uncaging-evoked, time-locked release of BDNF from single dendritic spines using BDNF fused to superecliptic pHluorin (SEP). Finally, to elucidate the molecular mechanisms by which TrkB activation leads to sLTP, we examined the dependence of Rho GTPase activity - known mediators of sLTP - on BDNF-TrkB signaling. Through the use of previously described FRET-based sensors, we find that the activities of ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1) and cell division control protein 42 (Cdc42) require BDNF-TrkB signaling. Taken together, these findings reveal a spine-autonomous, autocrine signaling mechanism involving NMDAR-CaMKII dependent BDNF release from stimulated dendritic spines leading to TrkB activation and subsequent activation of the downstream molecules Rac1 and Cdc42 in these same spines that proves critical for sLTP. In conclusion, these results highlight structural plasticity as one cellular consequence of CA1 dendritic spine TrkB activation that may potentially contribute to larger, circuit-level changes underlying SE-induced epilepsy.

Seismic Response Analysis of a Full-Scale Base-Isolated Structure via Measurements and Modeling

The full-scale base-isolated structure studied in this dissertation is the only base-isolated building in South Island of New Zealand. It sustained hundreds of earthquake ground motions from September 2010 and well into 2012. Several large earthquake responses were recorded in December 2011 by NEES@UCLA and by GeoNet recording station nearby Christchurch Women's Hospital. The primary focus of this dissertation is to advance the state-of-the art of the methods to evaluate performance of seismic-isolated structures and the effects of soil-structure interaction by developing new data processing methodologies to overcome current limitations and by implementing advanced numerical modeling in OpenSees for direct analysis of soil-structure interaction.

This dissertation presents a novel method for recovering force-displacement relations within the isolators of building structures with unknown nonlinearities from sparse seismic-response measurements of floor accelerations. The method requires only direct matrix calculations (factorizations and multiplications); no iterative trial-and-error methods are required. The method requires a mass matrix, or at least an estimate of the floor masses. A stiffness matrix may be used, but is not necessary. Essentially, the method operates on a matrix of incomplete measurements of floor accelerations. In the special case of complete floor measurements of systems with linear dynamics, real modes, and equal floor masses, the principal components of this matrix are the modal responses. In the more general case of partial measurements and nonlinear dynamics, the method extracts a number of linearly-dependent components from Hankel matrices of measured horizontal response accelerations, assembles these components row-wise and extracts principal components from the singular value decomposition of this large matrix of linearly-dependent components. These principal components are then interpolated between floors in a way that minimizes the curvature energy of the interpolation. This interpolation step can make use of a reduced-order stiffness matrix, a backward difference matrix or a central difference matrix. The measured and interpolated floor acceleration components at all floors are then assembled and multiplied by a mass matrix. The recovered in-service force-displacement relations are then incorporated into the OpenSees soil structure interaction model.

Numerical simulations of soil-structure interaction involving non-uniform soil behavior are conducted following the development of the complete soil-structure interaction model of Christchurch Women's Hospital in OpenSees. In these 2D OpenSees models, the superstructure is modeled as two-dimensional frames in short span and long span respectively. The lead rubber bearings are modeled as elastomeric bearing (Bouc Wen) elements. The soil underlying the concrete raft foundation is modeled with linear elastic plane strain quadrilateral element. The non-uniformity of the soil profile is incorporated by extraction and interpolation of shear wave velocity profile from the Canterbury Geotechnical Database. The validity of the complete two-dimensional soil-structure interaction OpenSees model for the hospital is checked by comparing the results of peak floor responses and force-displacement relations within the isolation system achieved from OpenSees simulations to the recorded measurements. General explanations and implications, supported by displacement drifts, floor acceleration and displacement responses, force-displacement relations are described to address the effects of soil-structure interaction.

Spontaneous Unfolding and Refolding of FNIII Domains Assayed by Thiol Exchange

Fibronectin (FN) is a large extracellular matrix (ECM) protein that is made up of

type I (FNI), type II (FNII), & type III (FNIII) domains. It assembles into an insoluble

supra-­‐‑molecular structure: the fibrillar FN matrix. FN fibrillogenesis is a cell‐‑mediated process, which is initiated when FN binds to integrins on the cell surface. The FN matrix plays an important role in cell migration, proliferation, signaling & adhesion. Despite decades of research, the FN matrix is one of the least understood supra-­‐‑molecular protein assemblies. There have been several attempts to elucidate the exact mechanism of matrix assembly resulting in significant progress in the field but it is still unclear as to what are FN-­‐‑FN interactions, the nature of these interactions and the domains of FN that

are in contact with each other. FN matrix fibrils are elastic in nature. Two models have been proposed to explain the elasticity of the fibrils. The first model: the ‘domain unfolding’ model postulates that the unraveling of FNIII domains under tension explains fibril elasticity.

The second model relies on the conformational change of FN from compact to extended to explain fibril elasticity. FN contain 15 FNIII domains, each a 7-­‐‑strand beta sandwich. Earlier work from our lab used the technique of labeling a buried Cys to study the ‘domain unfolding’ model. They used mutant FNs containing a buried Cys in a single FNIII domain and found that 6 of the 15 FNIII domains label in matrix fibrils. Domain unfolding due to tension, matrix associated conformational changes or spontaneous folding and unfolding are all possible explanation for labeling of the buried Cys. The present study also uses the technique of labeling a buried Cys to address whether it is spontaneous folding and unfolding that labels FNIII domains in cell culture. We used thiol reactive DTNB to measure the kinetics of labeling of buried Cys in eleven FN III domains over a wide range of urea concentrations (0-­‐‑9M). The kinetics data were globally fit using Mathematica. The results are equivalent to those of H-­‐‑D exchange, and

provide a comprehensive analysis of stability and unfolding/folding kinetics of each

domain. For two of the six domains spontaneous folding and unfolding is possibly the reason for labeling in cell culture. For the rest of the four domains it is probably matrix associated conformational changes or tension induced unfolding.

A long-­‐‑standing debate in the protein-­‐‑folding field is whether unfolding rate

constants or folding rate constants correlate to the stability of a protein. FNIII domains all have the same ß sandwich structure but very different stabilities and amino acid sequences. Our study analyzed the kinetics of unfolding and folding and stabilities of eleven FNIII domains and our results show that folding rate constants for FNIII domains are relatively similar and the unfolding rates vary widely and correlate to stability. FN forms a fibrillar matrix and the FN-­‐‑FN interactions during matrix fibril formation are not known. FNI 1-­‐‑9 or the N-­‐‑ terminal region is indispensible for matrix formation and its major binding partner has been shown to be FNIII 2. Earlier work from our lab, using FRET analysis showed that the interaction of FNI 1-­‐‑9 with a destabilized FNIII 2 (missing the G strand, FNIII 2ΔG) reduces the FRET efficiency. This efficiency is restored in the presence of FUD (bacterial adhesion from S. pyogenes) that has been known to interact with FNI 1-­‐‑9 via a tandem ß zipper. In the present study we

use FRET analysis and a series of deletion mutants of FNIII 2ΔG to study the shortest fragment of FNIII 2ΔG that is required to bind FNI 1-­‐‑9. Our results presented here are qualitative and show that FNIII 2ΔC’EFG is the shortest fragment required to bind FNI 1-­‐‑9. Deletion of one more strand abolishes the interaction with FNI 1-­‐‑9.