Sperm membrane fatty acid composition in the Eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus), koala (Phascolarctos cinereus), and common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) and its relationship to cold shock injury and cryopreservation success

Marsupial spermatozoa tolerate cold shock well, but differ in cryopreservation tolerance. In an attempt to explain these phenomena, the fatty acid composition of the sperm membrane from caput and cauda epididymides of the Eastern grey kangaroo, koala, and common wombat was measured and membrane sterol levels were measured in cauda epididymidal spermatozoa. While species-related differences in the levels of linolenic acid (18:3, n-6) and arachidonic acid (20:4, n-6) were observed in caput epididymal spermatozoa, these differences failed to significantly alter the ratio of unsaturated/saturated membrane fatty acids. However in cauda epididymidal spermatozoa, the ratio of unsaturated/saturated membrane fatty acids in koala and kangaroo spermatozoa was approximately 7.6 and 5.2, respectively; substantially higher than any other mammalian species so far described. Koala spermatozoal membranes had a higher ratio of unsaturated/saturated membrane fatty acids than that of wombat spermatozoa (t = 3.81; df = 4; p less than or equal to 0.02); however, there was no significant difference between wombat and kangaroo spermatozoa. The highest proportions of DHA (22:6, n-3), the predominant membrane fatty acid in cauda epididymidal spermatozoa, were found in wombat and koala spermatozoa. While species-related differences in membrane sterol levels (cholesterol and desmosterol) were observed in cauda epididymidal spermatozoa, marsupial membrane sterol levels are very low. Marsupial spermatozoal membrane analyses do not support the hypothesis that a high ratio of saturated/unsaturated membrane fatty acids and low membrane sterol levels predisposes spermatozoa to cold shock damage. Instead, cryogenic tolerance appears related to DHA levels. (C) 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The fatty acid composition of muscle and adipose tissues from entire and castrated male Boer goats raised in Australia

The fatty acid composition of longissimus thoracis (LT) muscle and adipose tissues (subcutaneous and intermuscular fat) from castrated and entire male Boer goat bucks was investigated. Sixty Boer bucks in groups of between three and five animals were slaughtered at 5, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90 and 105 kg live weight (5 and 15 kg animals were not castrated). The fatty acid composition of LT muscle from castrated and entire Boers was significantly affected by slaughter weight. The fatty acid content of LT muscle and subcutaneous and intermuscular fat from both castrated and entire Boer bucks was primarily composed of oleic acid followed by palmitic and stearic acid. Both oleic and palmitic acid increased with slaughter weight whereas stearic acid decreased. LT muscle from castrated Boer bucks contained higher amounts of desirable fatty acids. In contrast to slaughter weight, castration of Boer bucks resulted in only minor changes in fatty acid composition of adipose tissues. It can be concluded that slaughter weight plays a role in changing the fatty acid composition of LT muscle and adipose tissues from Boer bucks.

Calibration of the channel that determines the omega-hydroxylation regiospecificity of cytochrome P4504A1 - Catalytic oxidation of 12-halododecanoic acids

The fatty acid omega-hydroxylation regiospecificity of CYP4 enzymes may result from presentation of the terminal carbon to the oxidizing species via a narrow channel that restricts access to the other carbon atoms. To test this hypothesis, the oxidation of 12-iodo-, 12-bromo-, and 12-chlorododecanoic acids by recombinant CYP4A1 has been examined. Although all three 12-halododecanoic acids bind to CYP4A1 with similar dissociation constants, the 12-chloro and 12-bromo fatty acids are oxidized to 12-hydroxydodecanoic acid and 12-oxododecanoic acid, whereas the 12-iodo analogue is very poorly oxidized. Incubations in (H2O)-O-18 show that the 12-hydroxydodecanoic acid oxygen derives from water, whereas that in the aldehyde derives from O-2. The alcohol thus arises from oxidation of the halide to an oxohalonium species that is hydrolyzed by water, whereas the aldehyde arises by a conventional carbon hydroxylation-elimination mechanism. No irreversible inactivation of CYP4A1 is observed during 12-halododecanoic acid oxidation. Control experiments show that CYP2E1, which has an omega-1 regiospecificity, primarily oxidizes 12-halododecanoic acids to the omega-aldehyde rather than alcohol product. Incubation of CYP4A1 with 12,12-[H-2](2)-12-chlorododecanoic acid causes a 2-3-fold increase in halogen versus carbon oxidation. The fact that the order of substrate oxidation (Br > Cl >> I) approximates the inverse of the intrinsic oxidizability of the halogen atoms is consistent with presentation of the halide terminus via a channel that accommodates the chloride and bromide but not iodide atoms, which implies an effective channel diameter greater than 3.90 angstrom but smaller than 4.30 angstrom.

Polyunsaturated fatty acid oxidation in Alzheimer’s disease.

Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder which has been characterised with genetic (apolipoproteins), protein (ß-amyloid and tau) and lipid oxidation/metabolism alterations in its pathogenesis. In conjunction with the Dementia Research Group, Bristol University, investigation into genetic, protein and lipid oxidation in Alzheimer’s disease was conducted. A large sample cohort using the double-blind criteria, along with various clinical and chemical data sets were used to improve the statistical analysis and therefore the strength of this particular study. Bristol University completed genetic and protein analysis with lipid oxidation assays performed at Aston University. Lipid oxidation is a complex process that creates various biomarkers, from transient intermediates, to short carbon chain products and cyclic ring structures. Quantification of these products was performed on lipid extracts of donated clinical diseased and non-diseased frontal and temporal brain regions, from the Brain Bank within Frenchay Hospital. The initial unoxidised fatty acids, first transient oxidation intermediates the conjugated dienes and lipid hydroperoxides, the endpoint aldehyde biomarkers and finally the cyclic isoprostanes and neuroprostanes were determined to investigate lipid oxidation in Alzheimer’s. Antioxidant levels were also investigated to observe the effect of oxidation on the defence pathways. Assays utilised in this analysis included; fatty acid composition by GC-FID, conjugated diene levels by HPLC-UV and UV-spec, lipid hydroperoxide levels by FOX, aldehyde content by TBARs, antioxidant status by TEAC and finally isoprostane and neuroprostane quantification using a newly developed EI-MS method. This method involved the SIM of specific ions from F-ring isoprostane and neuroprostane fragmentation, which enabled EI-MS to be used for their quantification. Analyses demonstrated that there was no significant difference between control and Alzheimer samples across all the oxidation biomarkers for both brain regions. Antioxidants were the only marker that showed a clear variance; with Alzheimer samples having higher levels than the age matched controls. This unique finding is supported with the observed lower levels of lipid oxidation biomarkers in Alzheimer brain region samples. The increased antioxidant levels indicate protection against oxidation which may be a host response to counteract the oxidative pathways, but this requires further investigation. In terms of lipid oxidation, no definitive markers or target site for therapeutic intervention have been revealed. This study concludes that dietary supplementation of omega-3 fatty acids or antioxidants would most likely be ineffective against Alzheimer disease, although it may support improvement in other areas of general health.

Metabolic memory effect of the saturated fatty acid, palmitate, in monocytes

Hyperglycaemia has a deferred detrimental effect on glucose metabolism, termed "metabolic memory". Elevated saturated fatty acids promote insulin resistance, hyperglycaemia and associated atherosclerotic complications, but their effect on "metabolic memory" is unknown. Therefore we investigated whether basal and insulin-stimulated (10(-6)M for 12h) glucose (2-deoxy-D-[(3)H]-glucose) uptake was affected by palmitate pre-treatment human THP-1 monocytes. Palmitate-induced a time-dependent and concentration-dependent inhibition of insulin-stimulated glucose uptake, showing almost complete abolition of the insulin-stimulatory effect with 300 microM palmitate. Basal glucose uptake was unaffected by palmitate. When palmitate was washed out, the inhibitory effect on insulin-stimulated glucose uptake persisted for at least 60 h.

Fatty acid derivatised analogues of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide with improved antihyperglycaemic and insulinotropic properties

C-terminal acylation of Lys(37) with myristic (MYR; tetradecanoic acid), palmitic (PAL; hexadecanoic acid) and stearic (octadecanoic acid) fatty acids with or without N-terminal acetylation was employed to develop long-acting analogues of the glucoregulatory hormone, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP). All GIP analogues exhibited resistance to dipeptidylpeptidase-IV (DPP-IV) and significantly improved in vitro cAMP production and insulin secretion. Administration of GIP analogues to ob/ob mice significantly lowered plasma glucose-GIP(Lys(37)MYR), N-AcGIP(Lys(37)MYR) and GIP(Lys(37)PAL) increased plasma insulin concentrations. GIP(Lys(37)MYR) and N-AcGIP(Lys(37)MYR) elicited protracted glucose-lowering effects when administered 24h prior to an intraperitoneal glucose load. Daily administration of GIP(Lys(37)MYR) and N-AcGIP(Lys(37)MYR) to ob/ob mice for 24 days decreased glucose and significantly improved plasma insulin, glucose tolerance and beta-cell glucose responsiveness. Insulin sensitivity, pancreatic insulin content and triglyceride levels were not changed. These data demonstrate that C-terminal acylation particularly with myristic acid provides a class of stable, longer-acting forms of GIP for further evaluation in diabetes therapy.

Antidiabetic properties of zinc-alpha2-glycoprotein in ob/ob mice

Zinc-alpha(2)-glycoprotein (ZAG) is an adipokine associated with fat loss in cancer cachexia. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ability of recombinant human ZAG to attenuate type 2 diabetes in the ob/ob mouse model. ZAG (50 microg daily, iv) induced a progressive loss of body weight (3.5 g in 5 d), without an effect on food or water intake but with a 0.4 C rise in body temperature, suggesting an increased energy expenditure. Despite an increased plasma glycerol, indicative of increased lipolysis, levels of glucose, triglycerides, and nonesterified fatty acids were decreased by 17, 25, and 62%, respectively, due to an increased use of both glucose and lipids by muscle and brown adipose tissue. The weight of the latter increased 2-fold, and there was increased expression of uncoupling proteins-1 and -3. Plasma insulin levels were reduced by 36%, whereas pancreatic insulin was increased 4-fold, and there was a 53% decrease in the total area under the glucose curve in the glucose tolerance test and reduced insulin requirement. There was an increase in skeletal muscle mass due to an increase in protein synthesis and a decrease in protein degradation. These results suggest that ZAG may potentially be effective in the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Effect of a protein and energy dense n-3 fatty acid enriched oral supplement on loss of weight and lean tissue in cancer cachexia:A randomised double blind trial

Aim: N-3 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), may possess anticachectic properties. This trial compared a protein and energy dense supplement enriched with n-3 fatty acids and antioxidants (experimental: E) with an isocaloric isonitrogenous control supplement (C) for their effects on weight, lean body mass (LBM), dietary intake, and quality of life in cachectic patients with advanced pancreatic cancer. Methods: A total of 200 patients (95 E; 105 C) were randomised to consume two cans/day of the E or C supplement (480 ml, 620 kcal, 32 g protein ± 2.2 g EPA) for eight weeks in a multicentre, randomised, double blind trial. Results: At enrolment, patients' mean rate of weight loss was 3.3 kg/month. Intake of the supplements (E or C) was below the recommended dose (2 cans/day) and averaged 1.4 cans/day. Over eight weeks, patients in both groups stopped losing weight (Δweight E: -0.25 kg/month versus C: -0.37 kg/month; p=0.74) and LBM (ΔLBM E: +0.27 kg/month versus C: +0.12 kg/month; p=0.88) to an equal degree (change from baseline E and C, p<0.001). In view of evident non-compliance in both E and C groups, correlation analyses were undertaken to examine for potential dose-response relationships. E patients demonstrated significant correlations between their supplement intake and weight gain (r=0.50, p<0.001) and increase in LBM (r=0.33, p=0.036). Such correlations were not statistically significant in C patients. The relationship of supplement intake with change in LBM was significantly different between E and C patients (p=0.043). Increased plasma EPA levels in the E group were associated with weight and LBM gain (r=0.50, p<0.001; r=0.51, p=0.001). Weight gain was associated with improved quality of life (p<0.01) only in the E group. Conclusion: Intention to treat group comparisons indicated that at the mean dose taken, enrichment with n-3 fatty acids did not provide a therapeutic advantage and that both supplements were equally effective in arresting weight loss. Post hoc dose-response analysis suggests that if taken in sufficient quantity, only the n-3 fatty acid enriched energy and protein dense supplement results in net gain of weight, lean tissue, and improved quality of life. Further trials are required to examine the potential role of n-3 enriched supplements in the treatment of cancer cachexia.

Fatty acid composition, antioxidants and lipid oxidation in chicken breasts from different production regimes

Chicken breast from nine products and from the following production regimes: conventional (chilled and frozen), organic and free range, were analysed for fatty acid composition of total lipids, preventative and chain breaking antioxidant contents and lipid oxidation during 5 days of sub-ambient storage following purchase. Total lipids were extracted with an optimal amount of a cold chloroform methanol solvent. Lipid compositions varied, but there were differences between conventional and organic products in their contents of total polyunsaturated fatty acids and n-3 and n-6 fatty acids and n-6:n-3 ratio. Of the antioxidants, a-tocopherol content was inversely correlated with lipid oxidation. The antioxidant enzyme activities of catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase varied between products. Modelling with partial least squares regression showed no overall relationship between total antioxidants and lipid data, but certain individual antioxidants showed a relationship with specific lipid fractions.

Fatty acid and phospholipid chlorohydrins cause cell stress and endothelial adhesion

The oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is thought to contribute to atherogenesis, which is an inflammatory disease involving activation of phagocytic cells. Myeloperoxidase, an enzyme which is able to produce hypochlorous acid (HOCl), is released from these phagocytic cells, and has been found in an active form in atherosclerotic plaques. HOCl can oxidize both the lipid and protein moiety of LDL, and HOCl-modified LDL has been found to be pro-inflammatory, although it is not known which component is responsible for this effect. As HOCl can oxidize lipids to give chlorohydrins, we hypothesized that phospholipid chlorohydrins might have toxic and pro-inflammatory effects. We have formed chlorohydrins from fatty acids (oleic, linoleic and arachidonic acids) and from phospholipids (stearoyl-oleoyl phosphatidylcholine, stearoyl-linoleoyl phosphatidylcholine and stearoyl-arachidonoyl phosphatidylcholine), and investigated various biological effects of these oxidation products. Fatty acid and phospholipid chlorohydrins were found to deplete ATP levels in U937 cells in a concentration-dependent manner, with significant effects observed at concentrations of 25 µM and above. Low concentrations (25 µM) of stearoyl-oleoyl phosphatidylcholine and stearoyl-arachidonoyl phosphatidylcholine chlorohydrins were also found to increase caspase-3 activity. Finally, stearoyl-oleoyl phosphatidylcholine chlorohydrin increased leukocyte adhesion to artery segments isolated from C57Bl/6 mice. These results demonstrate potentially harmful effects of lipid chlorohydrins, and suggest that they may contribute to some of the pro-inflammatory effects that HOCl-modified low density lipoprotein has been found to induce.

Can surface energy measurements predict the impact of catalyst hydrophobicity upon fatty acid esterification over sulfonic acid functionalised periodic mesoporous organosilicas?

Sulfonic acid functionalised periodic mesoporous organosilicas (PrSO3 H-PMOs) with tunable hydrophobicity were synthesised via a surfactant-templating route, and characterised by porosimetry, TEM, XRD, XPS, inverse gas chromatography (IGC) and ammonia pulse chemisorption. IGC reveals that incorporation of ethyl or benzyl moieties into a mesoporous SBA-15 silica framework significantly increases the non-specific dispersive surface energy of adsorption for alkane adsorption, while decreasing the free energy of adsorption of methanol, reflecting increased surface hydrophobicity. The non-specific dispersive surface energy of adsorption of PMO-SO3H materials is strongly correlated with their activity towards palmitic acid esterification with methanol, demonstrating the power of IGC as an analytical tool for identifying promising solid acid catalysts for the esterification of free fatty acids. A new parameter [-ΔGCNP-P], defined as the per carbon difference in Gibbs free energy of adsorption between alkane and polar probe molecules, provides a simple predictor of surface hydrophobicity and corresponding catalyst activity in fatty acid esterification. © 2014 Elsevier B.V.

Age-associated changes in long-chain fatty acid profile during healthy aging promote pro-inflammatory monocyte polarization via PPARγ

Differences in lipid metabolism associate with age-related disease development and lifespan. Inflammation is a common link between metabolic dysregulation and aging. Saturated fatty acids (FAs) initiate pro-inflammatory signalling from many cells including monocytes; however, no existing studies have quantified age-associated changes in individual FAs in relation to inflammatory phenotype. Therefore, we have determined the plasma concentrations of distinct FAs by gas chromatography in 26 healthy younger individuals (age < 30 years) and 21 healthy FA individuals (age > 50 years). Linear mixed models were used to explore the association between circulating FAs, age and cytokines. We showed that plasma saturated, poly- and mono-unsaturated FAs increase with age. Circulating TNF-α and IL-6 concentrations increased with age, whereas IL-10 and TGF-β1 concentrations decreased. Oxidation of MitoSOX Red was higher in leucocytes from FA adults, and plasma oxidized glutathione concentrations were higher. There was significant colinearity between plasma saturated FAs, indicative of their metabolic relationships. Higher levels of the saturated FAs C18:0 and C24:0 were associated with lower TGF-β1 concentrations, and higher C16:0 were associated with higher TNF-α concentrations. We further examined effects of the aging FA profile on monocyte polarization and metabolism in THP1 monocytes. Monocytes preincubated with C16:0 increased secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in response to phorbol myristate acetate-induced differentiation through ceramide-dependent inhibition of PPARγ activity. Conversely, C18:1 primed a pro-resolving macrophage which was PPARγ dependent and ceramide dependent and which required oxidative phosphorylation. These data suggest that a midlife adult FA profile impairs the switch from proinflammatory to lower energy, requiring anti-inflammatory macrophages through metabolic reprogramming.

Age-associated changes in long-chain fatty acid profile during healthy aging promote pro-inflammatory monocyte polarization via PPARγ

Differences in lipid metabolism associate with age-related disease development and lifespan. Inflammation is a common link between metabolic dysregulation and aging. Saturated fatty acids (FAs) initiate pro-inflammatory signalling from many cells including monocytes; however, no existing studies have quantified age-associated changes in individual FAs in relation to inflammatory phenotype. Therefore, we have determined the plasma concentrations of distinct FAs by gas chromatography in 26 healthy younger individuals (age < 30 years) and 21 healthy FA individuals (age > 50 years). Linear mixed models were used to explore the association between circulating FAs, age and cytokines. We showed that plasma saturated, poly- and mono-unsaturated FAs increase with age. Circulating TNF-α and IL-6 concentrations increased with age, whereas IL-10 and TGF-β1 concentrations decreased. Oxidation of MitoSOX Red was higher in leucocytes from FA adults, and plasma oxidized glutathione concentrations were higher. There was significant colinearity between plasma saturated FAs, indicative of their metabolic relationships. Higher levels of the saturated FAs C18:0 and C24:0 were associated with lower TGF-β1 concentrations, and higher C16:0 were associated with higher TNF-α concentrations. We further examined effects of the aging FA profile on monocyte polarization and metabolism in THP1 monocytes. Monocytes preincubated with C16:0 increased secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in response to phorbol myristate acetate-induced differentiation through ceramide-dependent inhibition of PPARγ activity. Conversely, C18:1 primed a pro-resolving macrophage which was PPARγ dependent and ceramide dependent and which required oxidative phosphorylation. These data suggest that a midlife adult FA profile impairs the switch from proinflammatory to lower energy, requiring anti-inflammatory macrophages through metabolic reprogramming.