Les récepteurs GPR91 et GPR99 et leur implication dans le développement du système nerveux visuel

Les récepteurs couplés aux protéines G (RCPG) démontrent de plus en plus de capacités à activer des mécanismes jusqu’alors associés à des facteurs de transcription ou des molécules d’adhésion. En effet, de nouvelles preuves rapportent qu’ils pourraient également participer au guidage axonal qui est le mécanisme permettant aux axones de cellules nerveuses de rejoindre leur cible anatomique. Le guidage axonal se fait par l’interaction entre les molécules de guidage et une structure particulière présente à l’extrémité de l’axone, le cône de croissance. Par exemple, les RCPGs participent au guidage des cellules ganglionnaires de la rétine (CGR), dont les axones s’étendent de la rétine jusqu’au noyaux cérébraux associés à la vision. Cet effet est observé avec des RCPGs tels que les récepteurs aux cannabinoïdes (CB1 et CB2) et celui du lysophosphatidylinositol, le GPR55. Les RCPGs GPR91 et GPRG99, respectivement récepteurs au succinate et à l’α-cétoglutarate, se trouvent à la surface de ces CGRs, ce qui en font des candidats potentiels pouvant participer au guidage axonal. Dans ce mémoire, l’effet des ligands de ces récepteurs sur la croissance et la navigation des axones des CGRs fut analysé. L’impact produit par ces récepteurs ainsi que leurs ligands sur la morphologie des cônes de croissance fut déterminé en mesurant leur taille et le nombre de filopodes présents sur ces cônes. Pour évaluer le rôle du succinate et de l’a-cétoglutarate sur la croissance globale des axones de CGRs, la longueur totale des projections axonales d’explants rétiniens a été mesurée. L’effet de ces ligands des récepteurs GPR91 et GPR99 sur le guidage axonal a également été évalué en temps réel à l’aide d’un gradient créé par un micro injecteur placé à 45° et à 100µm du cône de croissance. La distribution in vivo des récepteurs GPR91 et GPR99 sur la rétine a été étudié à l’aide d’expériences d’immunohistochimie. Les résultats obtenus indiquent que l’ajout de 100µM de succinate produit une augmentation de la taille des cônes de croissance et du nombre de filopodes présents à leur surface. Il augmente également la croissance des axones. Ce type de réponse fut également observé lorsque les cellules furent soumises à 200µM d’α-cétoglutarate. Fait à noter, les deux récepteurs n’ont pas d’impact sur le guidage axonal. Ces résultats indiquent donc que les agonistes des récepteurs GPR91 et GPR99 augmentent la croissance des cellules ganglionnaires lorsqu’ils sont présents lors du développement. Par contre, ils n’ont pas d’influence sur la direction prise par les cônes de croissance. Ces nouvelles données sont un pas de plus dans la compréhension des mécanismes qui gèrent et participent au développement et la croissance des CGRs, ce qui pourrait donner de nouvelles cibles thérapeutique pouvant mener à la régénération de nerfs optiques endommagés.

Innovative therapeutic approaches for the atrophic Age-related Macular Degeneration (“dry” AMD)

Age related macular degeneration (AMD) is a major concern regarding blindness in the world. In western countries, where visual alterations due to minor pathologies as cataract and uncorrected refractive errors are easily resolved, AMD represent the main cause of blindness. Of the two existing forms of the disease, while the neovascular is more aggressive and progress quickly, geographic atrophy is the one still lacking an appropriate therapy. My PhD program was focused on investigating AMD features, trying to understand if some approaches I tested could be able to provide some suggestion about potential future therapies on “dry” AMD. In my research I developed three main projects. The most important part of the work regards the study of integrins and their fundamental role in cell adhesion in a context of interaction between retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) and immune cells. I investigated how co-culture of these different cell lines can lead to simulate an inflammatory state inducing cell signaling, cytokine production and cell death. The use of integrin antagonists developed in our laboratory, showed how these effects can be reverted. A secondary approach regards the use of antioxidants and their role in epigenetic modifications in ARPE-19 cells to investigate how these compounds might exert their well-known protective role on AMD. Commonly used antioxidants as Lutein and Quercetin do not induce clear epigenetic modifications through histone H3 acetylation indicating only a limited involvement.

Harnessing the power of Drosophila model to obtain new insights on MYC and ABCC1 cellular functions: from neuroblastoma to autism spectrum disorder

MYCN amplification is a genetic hallmark of the childhood tumour neuroblastoma. MYCN-MAX dimers activate the expression of genes promoting cell proliferation. Moreover, MYCN seems to transcriptionally repress cell differentiation even in absence of MAX. We adopted the Drosophila eye as model to investigate the effect of high MYC to MAX expression ratio on cells. We found that dMyc overexpression in eye cell precursors inhibits cell differentiation and induces the ectopic expression of Antennapedia (the wing Hox gene). The further increase of MYC/MAX ratio results in an eye-to-wing homeotic transformation. Notably, dMyc overexpression phenotype is suppressed by low levels of transcriptional co-repressors and MYCN associates to the promoter of Deformed (the eye Hox gene) in proximity to repressive sites. Hence, we envisage that, in presence of high MYC/MAX ratio, the “free MYC” might inhibit Deformed expression, leading in turn to the ectopic expression of Antennapedia. This suggests that MYCN might reinforce its oncogenic role by affecting the physiological homeotic program. Furthermore, poor neuroblastoma outcome associates with a high level of the MRP1 protein, encoded by the ABCC1 gene and known to promote drug efflux in cancer cells. Intriguingly, this correlation persists regardless of chemotherapy and ABCC1 overexpression enhances neuroblastoma cell motility. We found that Drosophila dMRP contributes to the adhesion between the dorsal and ventral epithelia of the wing by inhibiting the function of integrin receptors, well known regulators of cell adhesion and migration. Besides, integrins play a crucial role during synaptogenesis and ABCC1 locus is included in a copy number variable region of the human genome (16p13.11) involved in neuropsychiatric diseases. Interestingly, we found that the altered dMRP/MRP1 level affects nervous system development in Drosophila embryos. These preliminary findings point out novel ABCC1 functions possibly defining ABCC1 contribution to neuroblastoma and to the pathogenicity of 16p13.11 deletion/duplication

The impact of phosphoinositide metabolic enzymes in glioblastoma: a tale of phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C PLCβ1 and 5-phosphatase SKIP

Background: Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the deadliest and most aggressive form of primary brain tumor. Unfortunately, current GBM treatment therapies are not effective in treating GBM patients. They usually experience very poor prognosis with a median survival of approximately 12 months. Only 3-5% survive up to 3 years or more. A large-scale gene profile study revealed that several genes involved in essential cellular processes are altered in GBM, thus, explaining why existing therapies are not effective. The survival of GBM patients depends on understanding the molecular and key signaling events associated with these altered physiological processes in GBM. Phosphoinositides (PI) form just a tiny fraction of the total lipid content in humans, however they are implicated in almost all essential biological processes, such as acting as second messengers in spatio-temporal regulation of cell signaling, cytoskeletal reorganization, cell adhesion, migration, apoptosis, vesicular trafficking, differentiation, cell cycle and post-translational modifications. Interestingly, these essential processes are altered in GBM. More importantly, incoming reports have associated PI metabolism, which is mediated by several PI phosphatases such as SKIP, lipases such as PLCβ1, and other kinases, to regulate GBM associated cellular processes. Even as PLCβ1 and SKIP are involved in regulating aberrant cellular processes in several other cancers, very few studies, of which majority are in-silico-based, have focused on the impact of PLCβ1 and SKIP in GBM. Hence, it is important to employ clinical, in vitro, and in vivo GBM models to define the actual impact of PLCβ1 and SKIP in GBM. AIM: Since studies of PLCβ1 and SKIP in GBM are limited, this study aimed at determining the pathological impact of PI metabolic enzymes, PLCB1 and SKIP, in GBM patient samples, GBM cell line models, and xenograft models for SKIP. Results: For the first time, this study confirmed through qPCR that PLCβ1 gene expression is lower in human GBM patient samples. Moreover, PLCβ1 gene expression inversely correlates with pathological grades of glioma; it decreases as glioma grades increases or worsens. Silencing PLCβ1 in U87MG GBM cells produces a dual impact in GBM by participating in both pro-tumoral and anti-tumoral roles. PLCβ1 knockdown cells were observed to have more migratory abilities, increased cell to extracellular matrix (ECM) adhesion, transition from epithelial phenotype to mesenchymal phenotype through the upregulation of EMT transcription factors Twist1 and Slug, and mesenchymal marker, vimentin. On the other hand, p-Akt and p-mTOR protein expression were downregulated in PLCβ1 knockdown cells. Thus, the oncogenic pathway PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway is inhibited during PLCβ1 knockdown. Consistently, cell viability in PLCβ1 knockdown cells were significantly decreased compared to controls. As for SKIP, this study demonstrated that about 48% of SKIP colocalizes with nuclear PtdIns(4,5)P2 to nuclear speckles and that SKIP knockdown alters nuclear PtdIns(4,5)P2 in a cell-type dependent manner. In addition, SKIP silencing increased tumor volume and weight in xenografts than controls by reducing apoptosis and increasing viability. All in all, these data confirm that PLCβ1 and SKIP are involved in GBM pathology and a complete understanding of their roles in GBM may be beneficial.

E-cadherin and Choline Kinase: two challenging drug discovery targets

The data presented in this thesis was generated using molecular biology, protein chemistry and X-ray crystallography techniques. However, while the methodologies employed are essentially the same, the research work presented here refers to two different proteins, which are part of different research projects in the laboratory. For this reason, the content of this thesis is divided in two independent parts, each provided with an introduction and a general overview of the research topic and state-ofthe- art, a materials and methods section discussing the techniques used and the protocols followed, and a section where the results are presented and discussed in detail. The first half of the thesis deals with the structural characterization of the complex between human E-cadherin and three different small molecule potential inhibitors identified via a fragment-based drug discovery (FBDD) screening campaign that was conducted using a library of commercially available small fluorinated chemical fragments. For this screening phase, we used 19F-NMR as readout. The NMR experiments were done by our collaborator Dr. Marina Veronesi at the D3 PharmaChemistry division of the Italian Institute of Technology (IIT) in Genova (Italy). Functional cell adhesion assays to validate the inhibitory effects of the fragments thus identified were carried out in collaboration with Prof. Frédéric André at the University of Marseille (France). The second half of the thesis describes the structural characterization of Plasmodium falciparum Choline Kinase (PfChoK), an important pharmaceutical target in the fight against malaria, as well as the biochemical characterization of a library of potential inhibitors of PfChoK. These inhibitors were synthetized in the group of Prof. Luisa Carlota López-Cara at the Department of Pharmaceutical and Organic Chemistry of the University of Granada (Spain) in the framework of an ongoing collaboration between the two groups.

Mapping new non-genetic dependencies in malignant pleural mesothelioma

Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma (MPM) is a very aggressive cancer whose incidence is growing worldwide. MPM escapes the classical models of carcinogenesis and lacks a distinctive genetic fingerprint, keeping obscure the molecular events that lead to tumorigenesis. This severely impacts on the limited therapeutic options and on the lack of specific biomarkers, concurring to make MPM one of the deadliest cancers. Here we combined a functional genome-wide loss of function CRISPR/Cas9 screening with patients’ transcriptomic and clinical data, to identify genes essential for MPM progression. Besides, we explored the role of non-coding RNAs to MPM progression by analysing gene expression profiles and clinical data from the MESO-TCGA dataset. We identified TRIM28 and the lncRNA LINC00941 as new vulnerabilities of MPM, associated with disease aggressiveness and bad outcome of patients. TRIM28 is a multi-domain protein involved in many processes, including transcription regulation. We showed that TRIM28 silencing impairs MPM cells’ growth and clonogenicity by blocking cells in mitosis. RNA-seq profiling showed that TRIM28 loss abolished the expression of major mitotic players. Our data suggest that TRIM28 is part of the B-MYB/FOXM1-MuvB complex that specifically drives the activation of mitotic genes, keeping the time of mitosis. In parallel, we found LINC00941 as strongly associated with reduced survival probability in MPM patients. LINC00941 KD profoundly reduced MPM cells’ growth, migration and invasion. This is accompanied by changes in morphology, cytoskeleton organization and cell-cell adhesion properties. RNA-seq profiling showed that LINC00941 KD impacts crucial functions of MPM, including HIF1α signalling. Collectively these data provided new insights into MPM biology and demonstrated that the integration of functional screening with patients’ clinical data is a powerful tool to highlight new non-genetic cancer dependencies that associate to a bad outcome in vivo, paving the way to new MPM-oriented targeted strategies and prognostic tools to improve patients risk-based stratification.

Integrated Proteomics Identified Up-regulated Focal Adhesion-mediated Proteins In Human Squamous Cell Carcinoma In An Orthotopic Murine Model.

Understanding the molecular mechanisms of oral carcinogenesis will yield important advances in diagnostics, prognostics, effective treatment, and outcome of oral cancer. Hence, in this study we have investigated the proteomic and peptidomic profiles by combining an orthotopic murine model of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), mass spectrometry-based proteomics and biological network analysis. Our results indicated the up-regulation of proteins involved in actin cytoskeleton organization and cell-cell junction assembly events and their expression was validated in human OSCC tissues. In addition, the functional relevance of talin-1 in OSCC adhesion, migration and invasion was demonstrated. Taken together, this study identified specific processes deregulated in oral cancer and provided novel refined OSCC-targeting molecules.

Trypanosoma cruzi-elicited CD8+ T cell-mediated myocarditis: chemokine receptors and adhesion molecules as potential therapeutic targets to control chronic inflammation?

In Chagas disease, during the acute phase, the establishment of inflammatory processes is crucial for Trypanosoma cruzi control in target tissues and for the establishment of host/parasite equilibrium. However, in about 30% of the patients, inflammation becomes progressive, resulting in chronic disease, mainly characterized by myocarditis. Although several hypothesis have been raised to explain the pathogenesis of chagasic myocardiopathy, including the persistence of the parasite and/or participation of autoimmune processes, the molecular mechanisms underlying the establishment of the inflammatory process leading to parasitism control but also contributing to the maintenance of T. cruzi-elicited chronic myocarditis remain unsolved. Trying to shed light on these questions, we have for several years been working with murine models for Chagas disease that reproduce the acute self-resolving meningoencephalitis, the encephalitis resulting of reactivation described in immunodeficient individuals, and several aspects of the acute and chronic myocarditis. In the present review, our results are summarized and discussed under the light of the current literature. Furthermore, rational therapeutic intervention strategies based on integrin-mediated adhesion and chemokine receptor-driven recruitment of leukocytes are proposed to control T. cruzi-elicited unbalanced inflammation.

Moesin interacts with the cytoplasmic region of intercellular adhesion molecule-3 and is redistributed to the uropod of T Lymphocytes during cell polarization

During activation, T lymphocytes become motile cells, switching from a spherical to a polarized shape. Chemokines and other chemotactic cytokines induce lymphocyte polarization with the formation of a uropod in the rear pole, where the adhesion receptors intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), ICAM-3, and CD44 redistribute. We have investigated membrane-cytoskeleton interactions that play a key role in the redistribution of adhesion receptors to the uropod. Immunofluorescence analysis showed that the ERM proteins radixin and moesin localized to the uropod of human T lymphoblasts treated with the chemokine RANTES (regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed, and secreted), a polarization-inducing agent; radixin colocalized with arrays of myosin II at the neck of the uropods, whereas moesin decorated the most distal part of the uropod and colocalized with ICAM-1, ICAM-3, and CD44 molecules. Two other cytoskeletal proteins, ß-actin and ¿-tubulin, clustered at the cell leading edge and uropod, respectively, of polarized lymphocytes. Biochemical analysis showed that moesin coimmunoprecipitates with ICAM-3 in T lymphoblasts stimulated with either RANTES or the polarization- inducing anti-ICAM-3 HP2/19 mAb, as well as in the constitutively polarized T cell line HSB-2. In addition, moesin is associated with CD44, but not with ICAM-1, in polarized T lymphocytes. A correlation between the degree of moesin-ICAM-3 interaction and cell polarization was found as determined by immunofluorescence and immunoprecipitation analysis done in parallel. The moesin-ICAM-3 interaction was specifically mediated by the cytoplasmic domain of ICAM-3 as revealed by precipitation of moesin with a GST fusion protein containing the ICAM-3 cytoplasmic tail from metabolically labeled Jurkat T cell lysates. The interaction of moesin with ICAM-3 was greatly diminished when RANTES-stimulated T lymphoblasts were pretreated with the myosin-disrupting drug butanedione monoxime, which prevents lymphocyte polarization. Altogether, these data indicate that moesin interacts with ICAM-3 and CD44 adhesion molecules in uropods of polarized T cells; these data also suggest that these interactions participate in the formation of links between membrane receptors and the cytoskeleton, thereby regulating morphological changes during cell locomotion.

Blocking Junctional Adhesion Molecule C Enhances Dendritic Cell Migration and Boosts the Immune Responses against Leishmania major.

The recruitment of dendritic cells to sites of infections and their migration to lymph nodes is fundamental for antigen processing and presentation to T cells. In the present study, we showed that antibody blockade of junctional adhesion molecule C (JAM-C) on endothelial cells removed JAM-C away from junctions and increased vascular permeability after L. major infection. This has multiple consequences on the output of the immune response. In resistant C57BL/6 and susceptible BALB/c mice, we found higher numbers of innate immune cells migrating from blood to the site of infection. The subsequent migration of dendritic cells (DCs) from the skin to the draining lymph node was also improved, thereby boosting the induction of the adaptive immune response. In C57BL/6 mice, JAM-C blockade after L. major injection led to an enhanced IFN-γ dominated T helper 1 (Th1) response with reduced skin lesions and parasite burden. Conversely, anti JAM-C treatment increased the IL-4-driven T helper 2 (Th2) response in BALB/c mice with disease exacerbation. Overall, our results show that JAM-C blockade can finely-tune the innate cell migration and accelerate the consequent immune response to L. major without changing the type of the T helper cell response.

Changes in cell shape, cytoskeletal proteins and adhesion sites of cultured cells after extracellular Ca2+ chelation

Although much is known about the molecules involved in extracellular Ca2+ regulation, the relationship of the ion with overall cell morphology is not understood. The objective of the present study was to determine the effect of the Ca2+ chelator EGTA on the major cytoskeleton components, at integrin-containing adhesion sites, and their consequences on cell shape. Control mouse cell line C2C12 has a well-spread morphology with long stress fibers running in many different directions, as detected by fluorescence microscopy using rhodamine-phalloidin. In contrast, cells treated with EGTA (1.75 mM in culture medium) for 24 h became bipolar and showed less stress fibers running in one major direction. The adhesion plaque protein alpha5-integrin was detected by immunofluorescence microscopy at fibrillar adhesion sites in both control and treated cells, whereas a dense labeling was seen only inside treated cells. Microtubules shifted from a radial arrangement in control cells to a longitudinal distribution in EGTA-treated cells, as analyzed by immunofluorescence microscopy. Desmin intermediate filaments were detected by immunofluorescence microscopy in a fragmented network dispersed within the entire cytoplasm in EGTA-treated cells, whereas a dense network was seen in the whole cytoplasm of control cells. The present results suggest that the role of extracellular Ca2+ in the regulation of C2C12 cell shape can be mediated by actin-containing stress fibers and microtubules and by intermediate filament reorganization, which may involve integrin adhesion sites.

Adhesion molecule profiles of B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas in the leukemic phase

We evaluated the expression of 10 adhesion molecules on peripheral blood tumor cells of 17 patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia, 17 with mantle-cell lymphoma, and 13 with nodal or splenic marginal B-cell lymphoma, all in the leukemic phase and before the beginning of any therapy. The diagnosis of B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas was based on cytological, histological, immunophenotypic, and molecular biology methods. The mean fluorescence intensity of the adhesion molecules in tumor cells was measured by flow cytometry of CD19-positive cells and differed amongst the types of lymphomas. Comparison of chronic lymphocytic leukemia and mantle-cell lymphoma showed that the former presented a higher expression of CD11c and CD49c, and a lower expression of CD11b and CD49d adhesion molecules. Comparison of chronic lymphocytic leukemia and marginal B-cell lymphoma showed that the former presented a higher expression of CD49c and a lower expression of CD11a, CD11b, CD18, CD49d, CD29, and CD54. Finally, comparison of mantle-cell lymphoma and marginal B-cell lymphoma showed that marginal B-cell lymphoma had a higher expression of CD11a, CD11c, CD18, CD29, and CD54. Thus, the CD49c/CD49d pair consistently demonstrated a distinct pattern of expression in chronic lymphocytic leukemia compared with mantle-cell lymphoma and marginal B-cell lymphoma, which could be helpful for the differential diagnosis. Moreover, the distinct profiles of adhesion molecules in these diseases may be responsible for their different capacities to invade the blood stream.

Adhesion and protease activity in cell lines from human salivary gland tumors are regulated by the laminin-derived peptide AG73, syndecan-1 and beta 1 integrin

We studied the induction of protease activity by the laminin alpha 1-derived peptide AG73 in cells from adenoid cystic carcinoma (CAC2) and myoepithelioma (M1), respectively a malignant and a benign salivary gland tumors. Laminin alpha 1 chain and MMP9 were immunolocalized in adenoid cystic carcinoma and myoepithelioma in vivo and in vitro. Cells grown inside AG73-enriched laminin-111 exhibited large spaces in the extracellular matrix, suggestive of remodeling. The broad spectrum MMP inhibitor GM6001 decreased spaces induced by AG73 in CAC2 and M I cells. This result strongly suggests that AG73-mediated matrix remodeling involves matrix metalloproteinases. CAC2 and M1 cells cultured on AG73 showed a dose-dependent increase of MMP9 secretion, as detected by zymography. Furthermore, siRNA silencing of MMP9 decreased remodeling in 3D cultures. We searched for AG73 receptors regulating MMP9 activity in our cell lines. CAC2 and M1 cells grown on AG73 exhibited colocalization of syndecan-1 and beta 1 integrin. siRNA knockdown of syndecan-1 expression in these cells resulted in decreased adhesion to AG73 and reduced protease and remodeling activity. We investigated syndecan-1 co-receptors in both cell lines. Silencing beta 1 integrin inhibited adhesion to AG73, matrix remodeling and protease activity. Double-knockdown experiments were carried out to further explore syndecan-1 and beta 1 integrin cooperation. CAC2 cells transfected with both syndecan-1 and beta 1 integrin siRNA oligos showed significant decrease in adhesion to AG73. Simultaneous silencing of receptors also induced a decrease in protease activity. Our results suggest that syndecan-1 and beta 1 integrin signaling downstream of AG73 regulate adhesion and MMP production by CAC2 and M1 cells. (c) 2008 Elsevier B.V./International Society of Matrix Biology. All rights reserved.