Effect of type of fiber, site of fermentation, and method of analysis on digestibility of soluble and insoluble fiber in rabbits

The effect of type of fiber, site of fermetation, method for quantifying insoluble and soluble dietary fiber, and their correction for intestinal mucin on fiber digestibility were examined in rabbits. Three diets differing in soluble fiber were formulated (8.5% soluble fiber, on DM basis, in the low soluble fiber [LSF] diet; 10.2% in the medium soluble fiber [MSF] diet; and 14.5% in the high soluble fiber [HSF] diet). They were obtained by replacing half of the dehydrated alfalfa in the MSF diet with a mixture of beet and apple pulp (HSF diet) or with a mix of oat hulls and soybean protein (LSF diet). Thirty rabbits with ileal T-cannulas were used to determine ileal and fecal digestibility. Cecal digestibility was determined by difference between fecal and ileal digestibility. Insoluble fiber was measured as NDF, insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), and in vitro insoluble fiber, whereas soluble fiber was calculated as the difference between total dietary fiber (TDF) and NDF (TDF_NDF), IDF (TDF-IDF), and in vitro insoluble fiber (TDF-in vitro insoluble fiber). The intestinal mucin content was used to correct the TDF and soluble fiber digestibility. Ileal and fecal concentration of mucin increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (P < 0.01). Once corrected for intestinal mucin, ileal and fecal digestibility of TDF and soluble fiber increased whereas cecal digestibility decreased (P < 0.01). Ileal digestibility of TDF increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (12.0 vs. 28.1%; P < 0.01), with no difference in the cecum (26.4%), resulting in a higher fecal digestibility from the LSF to the HSF diet group (P < 0.01). Ileal digestibility of insoluble fiber increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (11.3 vs. 21.0%; P < 0.01), with no difference in the cecum (13.9%) and no effect of fiber method, resulting in a higher fecal digestibility for rabbits fed the HSF diet compared with the MSF and LSF diets groups (P < 0.01).Fecal digestibility of NDF was higher compared with IDF or in vitro insoluble fiber (P < 0.01). Ileal soluble fiber digestibility was higher for the HSF than for the LSF diet group (43.6 vs. 14.5%; P < 0.01) and fiber method did not affect it. Cecal soluble fiber digestibility decreased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (72.1 vs. 49.2%; P < 0.05). The lowest cecal and fecal soluble fiber digestibility was measured using TDF-NDF (P < 0.01). In conclusion, a correction for intestinal mucin is necessary for ileal TDF and soluble fiber digestibility whereas the selection of the fiber method has a minor relevance. The inclusion of sugar beet and apple pulp increased the amount of TDF fermented in the small intestine.

Occupational allergic multiorgan disease induced by wheat flour

Bakers are repeatedly exposed to wheat flour (WF) and may develop sensitization and occupational rhinoconjunctivitis and/or asthma to WF allergens.1 Several wheat proteins have been identified as causative allergens of occupational respiratory allergy in bakery workers.1 Testing of IgE reactivity in patients with different clinical profiles of wheat allergy (food allergy, wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis, and baker's asthma) to salt-soluble and salt-insoluble protein fractions from WF revealed a high degree of heterogeneity in the recognized allergens. However, mainly salt-soluble proteins (albumins, globulins) seem to be associated with baker's asthma, and prolamins (gliadins, glutenins) with wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis, whereas both protein fractions reacted to IgE from food-allergic patients.1 Notwithstanding, gliadins have also been incriminated as causative allergens in baker's asthma.2 We report on a 31-year-old woman who had been exposed to WF practically since birth because her family owned a bakery housed in the same home where they lived. She moved from this house when she was 25 years, but she continued working every day in the family bakery. In the last 8 years she had suffered from work-related nasal and ocular symptoms such as itching, watery eyes, sneezing, nasal stuffiness, and rhinorrhea. These symptoms markedly improved when away from work and worsened at work. In the last 5 years, she had also experienced dysphagia with frequent choking, especially when ingesting meats or cephalopods, which had partially improved with omeprazole therapy. Two years before referral to our clinic, she began to have dry cough and breathlessness, which she also attributed to her work environment. Upper and lower respiratory tract symptoms increased when sifting the WF and making the dough. The patient did not experience gastrointestinal symptoms with ingestion of cereal products. Skin prick test results were positive to grass (mean wheal, 6 mm), cypress (5 mm) and Russian thistle pollen (4 mm), WF (4 mm), and peach lipid transfer protein (6 mm) and were negative to rice flour, corn flour, profilin, mites, molds, and animal dander. Skin prick test with a homemade WF extract (10% wt/vol) was strongly positive (15 mm). Serologic tests yielded the following results: eosinophil cationic protein, 47 ?g/L; total serum IgE, 74 kU/L; specific IgE (ImmunoCAP; ThermoFisher, Uppsala, Sweden) to WF, 7.4 kU/L; barley flour, 1.24 kU/L; and corn, gluten, alpha-amylase, peach, and apple, less than 0.35 kU/L. Specific IgE binding to microarrayed purified WF allergens (WDAI-0.19, WDAI-0.53, WTAI-CM1, WTAI-CM2, WTAI-CM3, WTAI-CM16, WTAI-CM17, Tri a 14, profilin, ?-5-gliadin, Tri a Bd 36 and Tri a TLP, and gliadin and glutamine fractions) was assessed as described elsewhere.3 The patient's serum specifically recognized ?-5-gliadin and the gliadin fraction, and no IgE reactivity was observed to other wheat allergens. Spirometry revealed a forced vital capacity of 3.88 L (88%), an FEV1 of 3.04 L (87%), and FEV1/forced vital capacity of 83%. A methacholine inhalation test was performed following an abbreviated protocol,4 and the results were expressed as PD20 in cumulative dose (mg) of methacholine. Methacholine inhalation challenge test result was positive (0.24 mg cumulative dose) when she was working, and after a 3-month period away from work and with no visits to the bakery house, it gave a negative result. A chest x-ray was normal. Specific inhalation challenge test was carried out in the hospital laboratory by tipping WF from one tray to another for 15 minutes. Spirometry was performed at baseline and at 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, and 60 minutes after the challenge with WF. Peak expiratory flow was measured at baseline and then hourly over 24 hours (respecting sleeping time). A 12% fall in FEV1 was observed at 20 minutes and a 26% drop in peak expiratory flow at 9 hours after exposure to WF,

When defense backfires: Detrimental effect of a plant’s protective trichomes on an insect beneficial to the plant

The plant Mentzelia pumila (family Loasaceae) has leaves and stems densely covered with tiny hooked trichomes. The structures entrap and kill insects and therefore are most probably protective. But they are also maladaptive in that they incapacitate a coccinellid beetle (Hippodamia convergens) that preys upon an aphid enemy (Macrosiphum mentzeliae) of the plant. The adaptive benefit provided by the trichomes is evidently offset by a cost.

Postsymbiotic plasmid acquisition and evolution of the repA1-replicon in Buchnera aphidicola

Buchnera aphidicola is an obligate, strictly vertically transmitted, bacterial symbiont of aphids. It supplies its host with essential amino acids, nutrients required by aphids but deficient in their diet of plant phloem sap. Several lineages of Buchnera show adaptation to their nutritional role in the form of plasmid-mediated amplification of key-genes involved in the biosynthesis of tryptophan (trpEG) and leucine (leuABCD). Phylogenetic analyses of these plasmid-encoded functions have thus far suggested the absence of horizontal plasmid exchange among lineages of Buchnera. Here, we describe three new Buchnera plasmids, obtained from species of the aphid host families Lachnidae and Pemphigidae. All three plasmids belong to the repA1 family of Buchnera plasmids, which is characterized by the presence of a repA1-replicon responsible for replication initiation. A comprehensive analysis of this family of plasmids unexpectedly revealed significantly incongruent phylogenies for different plasmid and chromosomally encoded loci. We infer from these incongruencies a case of horizontal plasmid transfer in Buchnera. This process may have been mediated by secondary endosymbionts, which occasionally undergo horizontal transmission in aphids.

Cutin Monomers and Surface Wax Constituents Elicit H2O2 in Conditioned Cucumber Hypocotyl Segments and Enhance the Activity of Other H2O2 Elicitors1

Hypocotyls from etiolated cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) seedlings were gently abraded at their epidermal surface and cut segments were conditioned to develop competence for H2O2 elicitation. Alkaline hydrolysates of cutin from cucumber, tomato, and apple elicited H2O2 in such conditioned segments. The most active constituent of cucumber cutin was identified as dodecan-1-ol, a novel cutin monomer capable of forming hydrophobic terminal chains. Additionally, the cutin hydrolysates enhanced the activity of a fungal H2O2 elicitor, similar to cucumber surface wax, which contained newly identified alkan-1,3-diols. The specificity of elicitor and enhancement activity was further elaborated using some pure model compounds. Certain saturated hydroxy fatty acids were potent H2O2 elicitors as well as enhancers. Some unsaturated epoxy and hydroxy fatty acids were also excellent H2O2 elicitors but inhibited the fungal elicitor activity. Short-chain alkanols exhibited good elicitor and enhancer activity, whereas longer-chain alkan-1-ols were barely active. The enhancement effect was also observed for H2O2 elicitation by ergosterol and chitosan. The physiological significance of these observations might be that once the cuticle is degraded by fungal cutinase, the cutin monomers may act as H2O2 elicitors. Corrosion of cutin may also bring surface wax constituents in contact with protoplasts and enhance elicitation.

Sorbitol-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Expression in Transgenic Tobacco1 : High Amounts of Sorbitol Lead to Necrotic Lesions

We analyzed transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) expressing Stpd1, a cDNA encoding sorbitol-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from apple, under the control of a cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter. In 125 independent transformants variable amounts of sorbitol ranging from 0.2 to 130 μmol g−1 fresh weight were found. Plants that accumulated up to 2 to 3 μmol g−1 fresh weight sorbitol were phenotypically normal, with successively slower growth as sorbitol amounts increased. Plants accumulating sorbitol at 3 to 5 μmol g−1 fresh weight occasionally showed regions in which chlorophyll was partially lost, but at higher sorbitol amounts young leaves of all plants lost chlorophyll in irregular spots that developed into necrotic lesions. When sorbitol exceeded 15 to 20 μmol g−1 fresh weight, plants were infertile, and at even higher sorbitol concentrations the primary regenerants were incapable of forming roots in culture or soil. In mature plants sorbitol amounts varied with age, leaf position, and growth conditions. The appearance of lesions was correlated with high sorbitol, glucose, fructose, and starch, and low myo-inositol. Supplementing myo-inositol in seedlings and young plants prevented lesion formation. Hyperaccumulation of sorbitol, which interferes with inositol biosynthesis, seems to lead to osmotic imbalance, possibly acting as a signal affecting carbohydrate allocation and transport.

Characterization of Recombinant Rhamnogalacturonan α-l-Rhamnopyranosyl-(1,4)-α-d-Galactopyranosyluronide Lyase from Aspergillus aculeatus1 : An Enzyme That Fragments Rhamnogalacturonan I Regions of Pectin

The four major oligomeric reaction products from saponified modified hairy regions (MHR-S) from apple, produced by recombinant rhamnogalacturonan (RG) α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1,4)-α-d-galactopyranosyluronide lyase (rRG-lyase) from Aspergillus aculeatus, were isolated and characterized by 1H-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. They contain an alternating RG backbone with a degree of polymerization of 4, 6, 8, and 10 and with an α-Δ-(4,5)-unsaturated d-galactopyranosyluronic acid at the nonreducing end and an l-rhamnopyranose at the reducing end. l-Rhamnopyranose units are substituted at C-4 with β-galactose. The maximum reaction rate of rRG-lyase toward MHR-S at pH 6.0 and 31°C was 28 units mg−1. rRG-lyase and RG-hydrolase cleave the same alternating RG I subunit in MHR. Both of these enzymes fragment MHR by a multiple attack mechanism. The catalytic efficiency of rRG-lyase for MHR increases with decreasing degree of acetylation. Removal of arabinose side chains improves the action of rRG-lyase toward MHR-S. In contrast, removal of galactose side chains decreased the catalytic efficiency of rRG-lyase. Native RG-lyase was purified from A. aculeatus, characterized, and found to be similar to the rRG-lyase expressed in Aspergillus oryzae.

Multiple paternity in two natural populations (orchard and vineyard) of Drosophila.

Male mating success is an important fitness component in Drosophila. The seminal fluid conveyed with the sperm inhibits the proclivity of the female to remate and reduces her fitness. Nevertheless, females may remate before they have exhausted the sperm from the first male and consequently use sperm from both males. We have studied concurrent multiple paternity (CMP) in two Drosophila melanogaster populations, from an apple orchard and a vineyard just after harvest. CMP is high in both populations, somewhat greater than 50%; but it is not significantly higher in the vineyard, where the population density is much greater than in the orchard. Population density had been thought to be an important determinant of CMP incidence. We have used four gene loci coding for enzymes as independent markers for detecting CMP.

A new extinct primate among the Pleistocene megafauna of Bahia, Brazil.

A nearly complete skeleton of a robust-bodied New World monkey that resembles living spider monkeys was recovered from undisturbed Pleistocene deposits in the Brazilian state of Bahia. The skeleton displays the highly specialized postcranial pattern typical of spider and woolly spider monkeys and shares cranial similarities to the spider monkey exclusively. It is generically distinct on the basis of its robustness (>20 kg) and on the shape of its braincase. This new genus indicates that New World monkeys nearly twice the size of those living today were part of the mammalian biomass of southern Amazonia in the late Pleistocene. The discovery of this specimen expands the known adaptive diversity of New World monkeys and demonstrates that they underwent body size expansion in the terminal Pleistocene, as did many other types of mammals.

Accelerated evolution and Muller's rachet in endosymbiotic bacteria.

Many bacteria live only within animal cells and infect hosts through cytoplasmic inheritance. These endosymbiotic lineages show distinctive population structure, with small population size and effectively no recombination. As a result, endosymbionts are expected to accumulate mildly deleterious mutations. If these constitute a substantial proportion of new mutations, endosymbionts will show (i) faster sequence evolution and (ii) a possible shift in base composition reflecting mutational bias. Analyses of 16S rDNA of five independently derived endosymbiont clades show, in every case, faster evolution in endosymbionts than in free-living relatives. For aphid endosymbionts (genus Buchnera), coding genes exhibit accelerated evolution and unusually low ratios of synonymous to nonsynonymous substitutions compared to ratios for the same genes for enterics. This concentration of the rate increase in nonsynonymous substitutions is expected under the hypothesis of increased fixation of deleterious mutations. Polypeptides for all Buchnera genes analyzed have accumulated amino acids with codon families rich in A+T, supporting the hypothesis that substitutions are deleterious in terms of polypeptide function. These observations are best explained as the result of Muller's ratchet within small asexual populations, combined with mutational bias. In light of this explanation, two observations reported earlier for Buchnera, the apparent loss of a repair gene and the overproduction of a chaperonin, may reflect compensatory evolution. An alternative hypothesis, involving selection on genomic base composition, is contradicted by the observation that the speedup is concentrated at nonsynonymous sites.

Phylogenetic resolution within the Elephantidae using fossil DNA sequence from the American mastodon (Mammut americanum) as an outgroup.

DNA was extracted from the extinct American mastodon, the extinct woolly mammoth, and the modern Asian and African elephants to test the traditional morphologically based phylogeny within Elephantidae. Phylogenetic analyses of the aligned sequences of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b support a monophyletic Asian elephant-woolly mammoth clade when the American mastodon is used as an outgroup. Previous molecular studies were unable to resolve the relationships of the woolly mammoth, Asian elephant, and African elephant because the sequences appear to have evolved at heterogeneous rates and inappropriate outgroups were used for analysis. The results demonstrate the usefulness of fossil molecular data from appropriate sister taxa for resolving phylogenies of highly derived or early radiating lineages.

Fate of a redundant gamma-globin gene in the atelid clade of New World monkeys: implications concerning fetal globin gene expression.

Conclusive evidence was provided that gamma 1, the upstream of the two linked simian gamma-globin loci (5'-gamma 1-gamma 2-3'), is a pseudogene in a major group of New World monkeys. Sequence analysis of PCR-amplified genomic fragments of predicted sizes revealed that all extant genera of the platyrrhine family Atelidae [Lagothrix (woolly monkeys), Brachyteles (woolly spider monkeys), Ateles (spider monkeys), and Alouatta (howler monkeys)] share a large deletion that removed most of exon 2, all of intron 2 and exon 3, and much of the 3' flanking sequence of gamma 1. The fact that two functional gamma-globin genes were not present in early ancestors of the Atelidae (and that gamma 1 was the dispensible gene) suggests that for much or even all of their evolution, platyrrhines have had gamma 2 as the primary fetally expressed gamma-globin gene, in contrast to catarrhines (e.g., humans and chimpanzees) that have gamma 1 as the primary fetally expressed gamma-globin gene. Results from promoter sequences further suggest that all three platyrrhine families (Atelidae, Cebidae, and Pitheciidae) have gamma 2 rather than gamma 1 as their primary fetally expressed gamma-globin gene. The implications of this suggestion were explored in terms of how gene redundancy, regulatory mutations, and distance of each gamma-globin gene from the locus control region were possibly involved in the acquisition and maintenance of fetal, rather than embryonic, expression.

Interazioni piante - insetti: ruolo delle formiche in un sistema multitrofico. Aspetti ecoetologici ed applicativi

Le formiche svolgono un importante ruolo all’interno degli ecosistemi ed alcune specie sono considerate keystone in quanto in grado di modificare la componente biotica e/o abiotica dell’ecosistema stesso. Sono animali ubiquitari che hanno colonizzato molteplici ambienti, compresi gli agroecosistemi. Negli agroecosistemi spesso svolgono un ruolo impattante determinando la diffusione o il regresso di specie di artropodi, alcune delle quali dannose alle colture. La presente ricerca tiene conto di un’ampia visione dei rapporti ecoetologici intercorrenti tra le formiche e la componente biotica di un ecosistema, utilizzando il concetto di rete multitrofica. In quest’ottica, si è pensato di costruire un sistema multitrofico costituito da una specie vegetale di interesse agrario (Cucumis sativus), dai suoi fitofagi naturali, divisi in fitomizi (afidi) (Aphis gossypii e Myzus persicae) e fitofagi masticatori (bruchi del lepidottero Mamestra brassicae), formiche (Formica pratensis) e predatori afidofagi (Aphidolets aphidimyza). Il sistema multitrofico è stato utilizzato sia per studiare l’aggressività delle formiche, sia per verificare l’esistenza di una comunicazione interspecifica tra le formiche e le piante (allelochimici). Gli studi sull’aggressività sono consistiti nel: • Verificare il livello di aggressività delle formiche nei confronti di un fitofago masticatore, competitore degli afidi nello sfruttare la pianta ospite. • Verificare se la presenza di afidi mutualisti fa variare il livello di aggressività delle formiche verso il competitore. • Verificare se esiste aggressività verso un predatore di afidi, i quali, secondo il paradigma della trofobiosi, dovrebbero essere difesi dalle formiche in cambio della melata. • Verificare se il predatore ha evoluto strategie volte ad eludere il controllo delle formiche sugli insetti che si approcciano alla colonia di afidi. Gli studi sui rapporti piante-formiche sono stati effettuati mediante olfattometro, osservando la risposta delle formiche alle sostanze volatili provenienti da piante infestate in modo differente con i fitofagi del sistema. Attraverso il trappolaggio e l’analisi gas-cromatografica delle sostanze prodotte dalle piante oggetto di studio abbiamo quindi individuato tipo e quantità di ogni composto volatile. Oltre alle piante di cetriolo, per questi esperimenti sono state utilizzate anche piante di patata (Solanum tuberosum). Dagli esperimenti sull’aggressività è risultato che le formiche manifestano un elevato potenziale predatorio, eradicando completamente la presenza dei bruchi sulle piante. Questo livello di aggressività tuttavia non cresce con la presenza degli afidi mutualisti che dovrebbero essere difesi dai competitori. Le formiche inoltre non sono in grado di sopprimere i predatori afidofagi che ipotizziamo riescano ad effettuare un camuffamento chimico, assumendo gli odori degli afidi dei quali si nutrono. I risultati degli esperimenti in olfattometro mostrano una chiara risposta positiva delle formiche verso gli odori di alcune delle piante infestate. Vi sono delle differenze nella risposta in funzione della specie di fitofago presente e della specie di pianta utilizzata. Nei trattamenti in cui erano presenti le piante di C. sativus, gli esperimenti in olfattometro hanno mostrato che le formiche rispondono in modo significativo agli odori emessi dalle piante in cui vi era la presenza del fitofago masticatore M. brassicae, solo o in associazione con A. gossypii. La presenza dei soli afidi, sia mutualisti (A. gossypii) sia non mutualisti (M. persicae), non ha invece indotto una risposta significativa nelle formiche rispetto agli odori delle piante non infestate. Nei trattamenti in cui erano presenti le piante di S. tuberosum la scelta delle formiche è stata significativa verso gli odori emessi dalle piante infestate con ciascuna delle singole specie di erbivori rispetto alle piante non infestate. Gli esperimenti sull’analisi delle sostanze volatili emesse dalle piante hanno confermato che gli organismi vegetali sono una vera centrale di produzione biochimica, infatti ben 91 composti volatili diversi sono stati individuati dall’analisi gas-cromatografica delle piante di cetriolo e 85 in quelle di patata. Dalle elaborazioni effettuate, rispettivamente 27 e 4 di essi sono prodotti esclusivamente dalle piante attaccate dai fitofagi. In generale, il cambiamento più consistente è dato dalla quantità di alcune sostanze volatili emesse dalle piante infestate rispetto a quelle integre che determina un cambiamento nei rapporti tra le sostanze che compongono i volatiles. E’ probabile che l’effetto attrattivo esercitato sulle formiche sia dato da un Blend di sostanze più che dai singoli composti presenti

Diferentes olhares acerca dos processos de participação docente na construção da política curricular em Itatiba (2001-2012)

A presente dissertação é fruto da pesquisa que teve como objetivo investigar a participação docente, do Ensino Fundamental II, no processo de formação continuada e principalmente na construção da política curricular do município de Itatiba, o qual tem o ensino municipalizado do 1º ao 9º ano desde 1999. Vale ressaltar que o estudo discorreu entre a gestão municipal de 2001 a 2008 e a gestão de 2009 até 2012. A investigação se desenvolveu a partir das seguintes fontes: entrevista com o Secretário de Educação que atuou entre 2001 e 2008 e com a Secretária de 2009 a 2012; entrevista com duas supervisoras que participaram de todo o processo de 2001 a 2012; entrevista com duas diretoras que atuaram desde a municipalização até 2012; entrevista com quatro professores que se efetivaram após a municipalização (2001), atuam até hoje e participaram do processo de formação até 2012; documentos oficiais: Constituição Federal de 1988, LDB (9394/96), Diretrizes Curriculares Nacionais, FUNDEF (1997), FUNDEB (2007), Deliberação CEE nº73/2008, Lei da municipalização (3110/99), Lei do Sistema de Ensino do município de Itatiba (3485/2001), Projeto Político Pedagógico da SE de 2008, assim como os documentos curriculares do município: de 2001 a 2008 Orientações Curriculares e de 2009 a 2012 Currículo do Ensino Fundamental do 6º ao 9º de todas as disciplinas. É por meio de uma pesquisa qualitativa que esta dissertação se delineia. Desse modo, com entrevistas semiestruturadas bem como roteiros previamente elaborados, tivemos como critérios de escolha dos sujeitos: profissionais da educação que atuaram desde a municipalização até 2012, que participaram de todo o processo de formação continuada e da construção da política curricular. Nessa perspectiva, as entrevistas foram gravadas em áudio e, posteriormente, transcritas para o processo de análise. Dessa forma, o processo de análise consistiu na organização dos dados em categorias e subcategorias, estas estabelecidas pelo próprio conteúdo das entrevistas colhidas dos sujeitos, como também no entrecruzamento do conteúdo das entrevistas com os dados documentais das diferentes fontes utilizadas, que foram, por sua vez, analisados e discutidos à luz do referencial teórico que fundamentou a pesquisa. O estudo foi realizado com base em contribuições de autores que discutem o currículo (Veiga, Silva, Apple, Moreira, Sacristán), os saberes docentes (Tardif), a formação continuada de professores (Nóvoa, Hargreaves), a municipalização (Azanha, Arelaro).Os resultados do trabalho revelam, entre outras coisas, que a participação docente ocorreu no ponto de vista principalmente dos professores na gestão de 2009 a 2012, uma vez que esses se sentiram parte de todo o processo de discussão e construção.

Causation and Harm in a Multicomponent World

On September 17, 2015, the Federal Circuit issued another decision in the epic Apple v. Samsung smartphone war. This was the fourth court decision in the ongoing saga to deal with injunctions. Apple IV explained the level of proof necessary to satisfy the "causal nexus" requirement. This requirement had emerged as a response to patent litigations involving products with thousands of features, the vast majority of which are unrelated to the asserted patent. To prove a causal nexus, patentees seeking an injunction have to do more than just show that the infringing product caused the patentee irreparable harm. The harm must be specifically attributable to the infringing feature. In Apple IV, the Federal Circuit noted that proving causation was "nearly impossible" in these multicomponent cases. So it decided to water down the causal nexus requirement saying that it was enough for Apple to show that the infringing features were "important"and customer sought these particular features. This lower standard is an ill-advised mistake that leaves multicomponent product manufacturers more susceptible to patent holdup. My critique takes two parts. First, I argue that a single infringing feature rarely, if ever, "causes" consumers to buy the infringer’s multicomponent products. The minor features at issue in Apple IV illustrate this point vividly. Thus, the new causal nexus standard does not accurately reflect how causation and harm operate in a multicomponent world. Second, I explain why the court was so willing to accept such little evidence of real injury. It improperly applied notions of traditional property law to patents. Specifically, the court viewed patent infringement as harmful regardless of any concrete consequences. This view may resonate for other forms of property where an owner's rights are paramount and a trespass is considered offensive in and of itself. But the same concepts do not apply to patent law where the Supreme Court has consistently said that private interests must take a back seat to the public good. Based on these principles, the courts should restore the "causal nexus" requirement and not presume causation.