La oferta de crédito hipotecario para la adquisición de vivienda en el Distrito Metropolitano de Quito

El desarrollo de la presente investigación pretende estudiar la oferta del crédito para la adquisición de vivienda que otorgan las instituciones financieras en el Distrito Metropolitano de Quito y establecer un perfil del sujeto de crédito que estaría en capacidad de acceder a dichos créditos. Por ser el crédito hipotecario es una parte importante de la intermediación financiera la investigación pretende ser una fuente consulta informativa para todos aquellos que demandan un crédito hipotecario para la adquisición de vivienda, para ello éste estudio se desarrolla a través de cuatro capítulos. En el primer capítulo se pretende unificar conceptos que serán usados en el transcurso del desarrollo de la tesis, lo que permitirá al lector facilitar su lectura. El segundo capítulo es un análisis de los actores que intervienen en el proceso de otorgamiento de un crédito hipotecario en el Distrito Metropolitano de Quito. y la interacción de los mismos. El tercer capítulo es cambio, se describe como se da el proceso crediticio dentro de una institución financiera tomando como referencia la base legal vigente dictada por Superintendencia de Compañías y ejemplo que para fines académicos es el organigrama del banco XYZ. También se analizará en este capítulo los parámetros que utilizan las instituciones financieras para otorgar un crédito hipotecario al cliente y se realizan criterios de que parámetros podrían modificarse tomando las experiencias de otros países para cambiar el perfil de sujeto de crédito actual. En el cuarto capítulo se investiga nuevas alternativas y se realiza un análisis financiero de las condiciones actuales de crédito en el Distrito Metropolitano de Quito, a más de un ejemplo financiero-tributario para el leasing inmobiliario. Sobre la base del desarrollo de los cuatro capítulos se exponen finalmente las conclusiones y recomendaciones.

El derecho a la vivienda un problema nacional período 1988 1994: caso Distrito Metropolitano de Quito

El derecho a la vivienda es un principio de carácter universal, previsto en nuestro ordenamiento jurídico y garantizado por el estado. Sin embargo, el déficit de vivienda afecta a un segmento cada vez más representativo de la población, que incentivada por los modelos de desarrolle vigentes en el pais, ha ocasionado la expansión y concentración urbana, con los consiguientes problemas habitacionales que ello conlleva, afectando especialmente a las familias de bajos recursos económicos, que se ven precisados a vivir en precarias condiciones, en viviendas inadecuadas y carentes de servicios básicos. Ante esta situación, las políticas nacionales no han dado una respuesta apropiada a esta demanda mayoritaria, lo que ha permitido que en los últimos años se acentúe el déficit habitacional, lo que se confirma con la presente investigación, basada en los enunciados de los gobiernos que se han sucedido y la variación de legislación sobre vivienda de interés social y sus mecanismos de financiamiento, dictados en el periodo 1988 - 1994. Esta circunstancia ha derivado en el ensanchamiento de la marginalidad e informalidad de la vivienda por la aplicación de un marco legal inconsulto y disperso, que requiere de urgente revisión, actualilación y simplificación para que sea dinámico, flexible y sea un conductor para la provisión de vivienda hacia los estratos de menos recursos económicos.

Metodología para el desarrollo del plan de continuidad de riesgo operativo del Banco Ecuatoriano de la Vivienda (BEV)

El Banco Ecuatoriano de la Vivienda (BEV) constituye una de las principales herramientas que dispone el Estado Ecuatoriano para el desarrollo de sus políticas sociales, desde su creación la gestión del BEV estuvo dirigida a la solución del déficit habitacional en el Ecuador, debido a que es una institución financiera publica y al estar enfrentada a eventos de riesgo que podrían ocasionar la suspensión de sus actividades es necesario mantenga vigentes sus políticas de gestión de riesgos enmarcados dentro de la continuidad de negocios. La Superintendencia de Bancos y Seguros dispuso a través de la Resolución No. 834 de Riesgo Operativo, que las instituciones del sistema financiero implementen planes de continuidad de negocios a fin de garantizar su trabajo en forma permanente y así minimizar las perdidas en casos de interrupción de sus operaciones. El presente trabajo de investigación está enfocado en la aplicación de las mejores prácticas de riesgo operativo y de continuidad de los negocios para la elaboración de una metodología que permita al BEV contar con lineamientos para la estructuración de los planes de contingencia y continuidad de los negocios, que le faculten a la institución el establecer su cadena de valor y sus procesos críticos sobre los cuales deberá desarrollar sus planes de acción. Adicionalmente, se pretende concientizar al Gobierno Corporativo del BEV sobre la importancia de contar con planes de continuidad, para proteger la imagen de la organización y así enfrentar los riesgos que puedan ocasionar la suspensión de sus actividades.

Gestión de riesgo operativo en el Banco Ecuatoriano de la Vivienda. Diseño de un modelo de Sistema de administración de riesgo de lavado de activos y financiamiento de delitos para el Banco Ecuatoriano de la Vivienda

Dentro de la evolución de la Administración de los Riesgos, se ha venido generando en los últimos años, la necesidad de que las entidades bancarias implementen un sistema que les permita desarrollar diferentes medidas y recomendaciones internacionales creadas desde hace algunos años, con el objeto de impedir el lavado de activos. Desde la perspectiva de la evolución de los riesgos, el riesgo de tratar con delincuentes es un riesgo inaceptable, para cualquier institución del sistema financiero, esto ha motivado que las instituciones financieras participen proactivamente en contra de los intereses de aquellos que, de una u otra forma, pretendan o quieran aprovechar el sistema financiero para camuflar el fruto de sus actividades ilegales o incluso para promoverlas. En general los riesgos a los que están expuestas las Instituciones Financieras, se diferencian entre sí, dependiendo de la solución que se decida adoptar, en los riesgos financieros la solución puede determinar que estos sean absorbidos, mitigados, cubiertos con recursos propios o transferidos; en el riesgo de lavado de activos por el contrario la solución se encamina a prevenir y controlar, esto debido a que los mismos mantienen consigo riesgos asociados, los cuales desde el punto de vista de severidad y frecuencia, exponen todos los días a las Instituciones Financieras a un resultado económico negativo y catastrófico. Por lo expuesto, el Diseño de un Modelo de Sistema de Administración de Riesgo de Lavado de Activos, permitirá al Banco Ecuatoriano de la Vivienda, gestionar la dificultad de identificar, evaluar, medir, mitigar y monitorear el riesgo de lavado de activos, con el fin de minimizarlo, pero nunca erradicarlo, pues no se podrá evitar que el sistema financiero sea utilizado para dar apariencia de legalidad a activos de procedencia delictiva.

La tributación interna aplicada al arrendamiento mercantil y en el Régimen Especial de Admisión Temporal

La presente investigación tiene por objeto analizar el manejo tributario de los arrendamientos mercantiles y del régimen especial de admisión temporal. Se analiza la evolución del Leasing, determinando que el Ecuador fue uno de los primeros países en Latinoamérica en regular el Leasing; sin embargo, esta normativa no ha evolucionado, por lo que se examina la normativa tributaria vigente. Los Arrendamientos Mercantiles Financieros, permiten el financiamiento del 100% de los bienes de capital, opera a través de un contrato, en donde una compañía autorizada o una institución del sistema financiero, adquiere un bien de capital de acuerdo a las características especificadas por el arrendatario, recibiendo un canon mensual durante un plazo determinado; y que al terminar éste, podrá optar entre continuar el contrato en nuevas condiciones, adquirir los bienes por un precio residual, devolver los bienes o participar del precio de venta a un tercero. Además, se dan a conocer las ventajas que tiene el Arrendamiento Financiero como herramienta de financiamiento. Con referencia a los Regímenes Especiales de Admisión Temporal, se revisa la base tributaria en cuanto al Impuesto al Valor Agregado, debido a que en el Régimen de Admisión Temporal con Reexportación en el mismo Estado, se presenta un pago doble, de acuerdo a lo que dispone el Reglamento para la Aplicación de la Ley de Régimen Tributario Interno y a la Ley Orgánica de Aduanas con referencia a la depreciación, que constituye la base imponible para el cálculo del Impuesto al Valor Agregado.

Spatial and temporal scale issues in determining biomass burning regimes in Bolivia and Peru

ATSR-2 active fire data from 1996 to 2000, TRMM VIRS fire counts from 1998 to 2000 and burn scars derived from SPOT VEGETATION ( the Global Burnt Area 2000 product) were mapped for Peru and Bolivia to analyse the spatial distribution of burning and its intra- and inter-annual variability. The fire season in the region mainly occurs between May and October; though some variation was found between the six broad habitat types analysed: desert, grassland, savanna, dry forest, moist forest and yungas (the forested valleys on the eastern slope of the Andes). Increased levels of burning were generally recorded in ATSR-2 and TRMM VIRS fire data in response to the 1997/1998 El Nino, but in some areas the El Nino effect was masked by the more marked influences of socio-economic change on land use and land cover. There were differences between the three global datasets: ATSR-2 under-recorded fires in ecosystems with low net primary productivities. This was because fires are set during the day in this region and, when fuel loads are low, burn out before the ATSR-2 overpass in the region which is between 02.45 h and 03.30 h. TRMM VIRS was able to detect these fires because its overpasses cover the entire diurnal range on a monthly basis. The GBA2000 product has significant errors of commission (particularly areas of shadow in the well-dissected eastern Andes) and omission (in the agricultural zone around Santa Cruz, Bolivia and in north-west Peru). Particular attention was paid to biomass burning in high-altitude grasslands, where fire is an important pastoral management technique. Fires and burn scars from Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) data for a range of years between 1987 and 2000 were mapped for areas around Parque Nacional Rio Abiseo (Peru) and Parque Nacional Carrasco (Bolivia). Burn scars mapped in the grasslands of these two areas indicate far more burning had taken place than either the fires or the burn scars derived from global datasets. Mean scar sizes are smaller and have a smaller range in size between years the in the study area in Peru (6.6-7.1 ha) than Bolivia (16.9-162.5 ha). Trends in biomass burning in the two highland areas can be explained in terms of the changing socio-economic environments and impacts of conservation. The mismatch between the spatial scale of biomass burning in the high-altitude grasslands and the sensors used to derive global fire products means that an entire component of the fire regime in the region studied is omitted, despite its importance in the farming systems on the Andes.

Temporal patterns of nutrient availability around nests of leaf-cutting ants (Atta colombica) in secondary moist tropical forest

Leaf-cutting ants consume up to 10% of canopy leaves in the foraging area of their colony and therefore represent a key perturbation in the nutrient cycle of tropical forests. We used a chronosequence of nest sites on Barro, Colorado Island, Panama, to assess the influence of leaf-cutting ants (Atta colombica) on nutrient availability in a neotropical rainforest. Twelve nest sites were sampled, including active nests, recently abandoned nests (<1 year) and long-abandoned nests (>1 year). Waste material discarded by the ants down-slope from the nests contained large concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus in both total and soluble forms, but decomposed within one year after the nests were abandoned. Despite this, soil under the waste material contained high concentrations of nitrate and ammonium that persisted after the disappearance of the waste, although soluble phosphate returned to background concentrations within one year of nest abandonment. Fine roots were more abundant in soil under waste than control soils up to one year after nest abandonment, but were not significantly different for older sites. In contrast to the waste dumps, soil above the underground nest chambers consistently contained lower nutrient concentrations than control soils, although this was not statistically significant. We conclude that the 'islands of fertility' created by leaf-cutting ants provide a nutritional benefit to nearby plants for less than one year after nest abandonment in the moist tropical environment of Barro Colorado Island. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Water quality and ecology of the River Lee: mass balance and a review of temporal and spatial data

A regional overview of the water quality and ecology of the River Lee catchment is presented. Specifically, data describing the chemical, microbiological and macrobiological water quality and fisheries communities have been analysed, based on a division into river, sewage treatment works, fish-farm, lake and industrial samples. Nutrient enrichment and the highest concentrations of metals and micro-organics were found in the urbanised, lower reaches of the Lee and in the Lee Navigation. Average annual concentrations of metals were generally within environmental quality standards although, oil many occasions, concentrations of cadmium, copper, lead, mercury and zinc were in excess of the standards. Various organic substances (used as herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, chlorination by-products and industrial solvents) were widely detected in the Lee system. Concentrations of ten micro-organic substances were observed in excess of their environmental quality standards, though not in terms of annual averages. Sewage treatment works were the principal point source input of nutrients. metals and micro-organic determinands to the catchment. Diffuse nitrogen sources contributed approximately 60% and 27% of the in-stream load in the upper and lower Lee respectively, whereas approximately 60% and 20% of the in-stream phosphorus load was derived from diffuse sources in the upper and lower Lee. For metals, the most significant source was the urban runoff from North London. In reaches less affected by effluent discharges, diffuse runoff from urban and agricultural areas dominated trends. Flig-h microbiological content, observed in the River Lee particularly in urbanised reaches, was far in excess of the EC Bathing Water Directive standards. Water quality issues and degraded habitat in the lower reaches of the Lee have led to impoverished aquatic fauna but, within the mid-catchment reaches and upper agricultural tributaries, less nutrient enrichment and channel alteration has permitted more diverse aquatic fauna.

Impulsiveness as a timing disturbance: neurocognitive abnormalities in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder during temporal processes and normalization with methylphenidate.

We argue that impulsiveness is characterized by compromised timing functions such as premature motor timing, decreased tolerance to delays, poor temporal foresight and steeper temporal discounting. A model illustration for the association between impulsiveness and timing deficits is the impulsiveness disorder of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Children with ADHD have deficits in timing processes of several temporal domains and the neural substrates of these compromised timing functions are strikingly similar to the neuropathology of ADHD. We review our published and present novel functional magnetic resonance imaging data to demonstrate that ADHD children show dysfunctions in key timing regions of prefrontal, cingulate, striatal and cerebellar location during temporal processes of several time domains including time discrimination of milliseconds, motor timing to seconds and temporal discounting of longer time intervals. Given that impulsiveness, timing abnormalities and more specifically ADHD have been related to dopamine dysregulation, we tested for and demonstrated a normalization effect of all brain dysfunctions in ADHD children during time discrimination with the dopamine agonist and treatment of choice, methylphenidate. This review together with the new empirical findings demonstrates that neurocognitive dysfunctions in temporal processes are crucial to the impulsiveness disorder of ADHD and provides first evidence for normalization with a dopamine reuptake inhibitor.

The neural processing of masked speech: Evidence for different mechanisms in the left and right temporal lobes

It has been previously demonstrated that extensive activation in the dorsolateral temporal lobes associated with masking a speech target with a speech masker, consistent with the hypothesis that competition for central auditory processes is an important factor in informational masking. Here, masking from speech and two additional maskers derived from the original speech were investigated. One of these is spectrally rotated speech, which is unintelligible and has a similar (inverted) spectrotemporal profile to speech. The authors also controlled for the possibility of “glimpsing” of the target signal during modulated masking sounds by using speech-modulated noise as a masker in a baseline condition. Functional imaging results reveal that masking speech with speech leads to bilateral superior temporal gyrus (STG) activation relative to a speech-in-noise baseline, while masking speech with spectrally rotated speech leads solely to right STG activation relative to the baseline. This result is discussed in terms of hemispheric asymmetries for speech perception, and interpreted as showing that masking effects can arise through two parallel neural systems, in the left and right temporal lobes. This has implications for the competition for resources caused by speech and rotated speech maskers, and may illuminate some of the mechanisms involved in informational masking.

Maize yield and rainfall on different spatial and temporal scales in Southern Brazil

This study aimed to establish relationships between maize yield and rainfall on different temporal and spatial scales, in order to provide a basis for crop monitoring and modelling. A 16-year series of maize yield and daily rainfall from 11 municipalities and micro-regions of Rio Grande do Sul State was used. Correlation and regression analyses were used to determine associations between crop yield and rainfall for the entire crop cycle, from tasseling to 30 days after, and from 5 days before tasseling to 40 days after. Close relationships between maize yield and rainfall were found, particularly during the reproductive period (45-day period comprising the flowering and grain filling). Relationships were closer on a regional scale than at smaller scales. Implications of the crop-rainfall relationships for crop modelling are discussed.

A temporal limit to the association between flag leaf life extension by fungicides and wheat yields

Three field experiments, each repeated over two or three seasons, on winter wheat investigated a possible limit to the association between grain yield and flag leaf life, as extended by fungicide application. The experiments involved up to six cultivars and different application rates, timings and frequencies of the strobilurin azoxystrobin and the triazole epoxiconazole. In the 2000/01 and 2001/02 seasons, the relationships between the thermal time to 37 % green flag leaf area (m) and yield deviated from linearity. 'Broken stick' models were fitted to cultivar x experiment combinations within each season and the limit to the benefit to yield associated with extending flag leaf life was 700 degrees C days (S.E. = 20.7) and 725 degrees C days (S.E. = 9.33) after anthesis in 2000/01 and 2001/02, respectively. In 2002/03, the relationship between yield and in did not deviate significantly (P > 0.05) from linearity, but in this latter year the fungicide application failed to increase In past 700 degrees C days. (c) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The effects of spatial and temporal heterogeneity on the population dynamics of four animal species in a Danish landscape

Background: Variation in carrying capacity and population return rates is generally ignored in traditional studies of population dynamics. Variation is hard to study in the field because of difficulties controlling the environment in order to obtain statistical replicates, and because of the scale and expense of experimenting on populations. There may also be ethical issues. To circumvent these problems we used detailed simulations of the simultaneous behaviours of interacting animals in an accurate facsimile of a real Danish landscape. The models incorporate as much as possible of the behaviour and ecology of skylarks Alauda arvensis, voles Microtus agrestis, a ground beetle Bembidion lampros and a linyphiid spider Erigone atra. This allows us to quantify and evaluate the importance of spatial and temporal heterogeneity on the population dynamics of the four species. Results: Both spatial and temporal heterogeneity affected the relationship between population growth rate and population density in all four species. Spatial heterogeneity accounted for 23–30% of the variance in population growth rate after accounting for the effects of density, reflecting big differences in local carrying capacity associated with the landscape features important to individual species. Temporal heterogeneity accounted for 3–13% of the variance in vole, skylark and spider, but 43% in beetles. The associated temporal variation in carrying capacity would be problematic in traditional analyses of density dependence. Return rates were less than one in all species and essentially invariant in skylarks, spiders and beetles. Return rates varied over the landscape in voles, being slower where there were larger fluctuations in local population sizes. Conclusion: Our analyses estimated the traditional parameters of carrying capacities and return rates, but these are now seen as varying continuously over the landscape depending on habitat quality and the mechanisms of density dependence. The importance of our results lies in our demonstration that the effects of spatial and temporal heterogeneity must be accounted for if we are to have accurate predictive models for use in management and conservation. This is an area which until now has lacked an adequate theoretical framework and methodology.

Spatio-temporal analysis of an invasive plant pathogen (Phytophthora ramorum) in England and Wales

Phytophthora ramorum is a damaging invasive plant pathogen and was first discovered in the UK in 2002. Spatial point analyses were applied to the occurrence of this disease in England and Wales during the period of 2003-2006 in order to assess its spatio-temporal spread. Out of the 4301 garden centres and nurseries (GCN) surveyed, there were 164, 105, 123 and 41 sites with P. ramorum in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006, respectively. Spatial analysis of the observed point patterns of GCN outbreaks suggested that these sites were significantly clumped within a radius of ca 60 km in 2003, but not in later years. Further analyses were conducted to determine the relationship of GCN outbreak sites over two consecutive years and thus to infer possible disease spread over time. This analysis suggested that disease spread among GCN sites was most likely to have occurred within a distance of 60 km for 2003-2004, but not for the later years. There were 35, 63, 81 and 58 sites with P. ramorum in the semi-natural environment (SNE). Analyses were carried out to assess whether infected GCN sites could act as an inoculum source of infected SNE plants or vice versa. In all years, there was a significant spatial closeness among GCN and SNE outbreak sites within a distance of 1 km. But a significant relationship over a longer distance (within 60 km) was only observed between cases in 2003 and 2004. These analyses suggest that statutory actions taken so far appear to have reduced the extent of long-distance spread of P. ramorum among garden centres and nurseries, but not the disease spread at a shorter distance between GCN and SNE sites.