Letter Reply: Distribution of TNFA haplotypes in healthy Caucasians: Comment on the articles by Newton et al and Zeggini et al

We thank Ploski and colleagues for their interest in our study. The explanation for the difference in our findings is a typographic error in Table 2 of our article, whereby the alleles for marker TNF ⫺1031 were labeled incorrectly...

Using environmental criminology theories to compare ‘youth misuse of fire’ across age groups in New South Wales

Youth misuse of fire is a substantive community concern. Despite evidence which indicates youths account for a significant proportion of all deliberately lit fires within Australia, an absence of up-to-date, contextually specific research means the exact scope and magnitude of youth misuse of fire within Australia remains unknown. Despite research suggesting com- monalities exist between youth misuse of fire and juvenile offending more broadly, misuse of fire is rarely explained using criminological theory. In light of this gap, a descriptive analysis of youth misuse of fire within New South Wales was performed. Routine Activity Theory and Crime Pattern Theory were tested to explain differences in misuse of fire across age groups. Results suggest these environmental theories offer useful frameworks for explaining youth misuse of fire in New South Wales. It is argued that the Routine Activity Theory and Crime Pattern Theory can be employed to better inform youth misuse of fire policy and prevention efforts.

Evolution of a ~2.7 Ga large igneous province: A volcanological, geochemical and geochronological study of the Agnew Greenstone Belt, and new regional correlations for the Kalgoorlie Terrane (Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia)

The thick package of ~2.7 Ga mafic and ultramafic lavas and intrusions preserved among the Neoarchean of the Kalgoorlie Terrene in Western Australia provides valuable insight into geological processes controlling the most prodigious episode of growth and preservation of juvenile continental crust in Earth’s history. Limited exposure of these rocks results in uncertainty about their age, physical and chemical characteristics, and stratigraphic relationships. This in turn prevents confident correlation of regional occurrences of mafic and ultramafic successions (both intrusive and extrusive) and hinders the interpretation of tectonic setting and magmatic evolution. A recent stratigraphic drilling program of the Neoarchean stratigraphy of the Agnew Greenstone Belt in Western Australia has provided continuous exposures through a c. 7 km thick sequence of mafic and ultramafic units. In this study, we present a volcanological, lithogeochemical and chronological study of the Agnew Greenstone Belt, and provide the first pre-2690 Ma regional correlation across the Kalgoorlie Terrane. The Agnew Greenstone Belt records ~30 m.y. of episodic ultramafic-mafic magmatism that includes two cycles, each defined by a komatiite that is overlain by units that become more evolved and contaminated with time. The sequence is divided into nine conformable packages, each consisting of stacked subaqueous lava flows and comagmatic intrusions, as well as two sills without associated extrusions. Lavas, with the exception of intercalations between two units, form a layer-cake stratigraphy and were likely erupted from a system of fissures tapping the same magma source. The komatiites are not contaminated by continental crust ([La/Sm]PM ~0.7) and are of the Al-undepleted Munro-type. Crustal contamination is evident in many units (Songvang Basalt, Never Can Tell Basalt, Redeemer Basalt, and Turrett Dolerite), as judged by [La/Sm]>1, negative Nb and Ti anomalies, and geochemical mixing trends towards felsic contaminants. Crystal fractionation was also significant, with early olivine and chromite (Mg#>65) followed by plagioclase and clinopyroxene removal (Mg<65), and in the most evolved case, titanomagnetite accumulation. Three new TIMS dates on granophyric zones of mafic sills and one ICP-MS date from an interflow felsic tuff are presented and used for regional stratigraphic correlation. Cycle I magmatism began at ~2720 Ma and ended ~2705 Ma, whereas cycle II began ~2705 Ma and ended at 2690.7±1.2 Ma. Regional correlations indicate the western Kalgoorlie Terrane consists of a remarkably similar stratigraphy that can be recognised at Agnew, Ora Banda and Coolgardie, whereas the eastern part of the terrane (e.g., Kambalda Domain) does not include cycle I, but correlates well with cycle II. This research supports an autochthonous model of greenstone formation, in which one large igneous province, represented by two complete cycles, is constructed on sialic crust. New stratigraphic correlations for the Kalgoorlie Terrane indicate that many units can be traced over distances >100 km, which has implications for exploration targeting for stratigraphically hosted ultramafic Ni and VMS deposits.

Concordance of disease severity among family members with ankylosing spondylitis?

Objective. The heritability of disease activity and function in ankylosing spondylitis (AS) have been estimated at 0.51 and 0.63 (i.e., 51% and 63%), respectively. We examined the concordance of disease severity among family members in terms of disease activity, function, radiological change, prevalence of iritis, and juvenile onset. Methods. Disease activity and functional impairment due to AS were studied using the Bath AS Disease Activity Index (BASDAI) and Functional Index (BASFI) self-administered questionnaires; radiographic involvement was measured using the Bath AS Radiology Index (BASRI) scale. Familial correlation of BASDAI and BASFI was assessed in 406 families with 2 or more cases, using the program PAP. Parent-child and sibling-sibling concordance for iritis and juvenile AS were also studied in these families. Heritability of radiological disease severity based on the BASRI was assessed in 29 families containing 60 affected individuals using the program SOLAR. Results. Correlations between parent-child pairs for disease activity and function were 0.07 for both. Correlations between sibling pairs for disease activity and function were 0.27 and 0.36, respectively. The children of AS parents with iritis were more likely to develop iritis [27/71 (38%)] than children of non-iritis AS parents [13/70 (19%)] (p = 0.01). Parents with JAS were more likely to have children with JAS [17/30 (57%) compared to non-JAS parents 34/111 (30%)] (p = 0.002). The heritability of radiological disease severity based on the BASRI was 0.62. Conclusion. While correlation in severity between parent and child is poor, siblings do resemble each other in terms of severity, supporting the findings of segregation studies indicating significant genetic dominance in the heritable component of disease activity. Significant parent-child concordance for iritis and juvenile disease onset suggest that there are genetic risk factors for these traits independent of those determining the risk of AS itself. The finding of significant heritability of radiological change (BASRI) provides support using an objective measure for the observed heritability of the questionnaire-assessed disease severity scores, ASDAI and BASFI.

A 3-hour quantitative comparison of glucose-based versus rice-based oral rehydration solution intake by children with diarrhoea in Port Moresby General Hospital

Measurements were made of the intake of a WHO/UNICEF glucose-based and a rice cereal-based oral rehydration solution (ORS) by children with diarrhoea. Twenty children who presented to the Children's Outpatient Department at Port Moresby General Hospital with acute diarrhoea and mild dehydration were randomly assigned to an ORS and measurements were taken over the following 3 hours. For data analysis, the patients were paired by weight. Testing the means of the paired samples by t test showed that there was no significant difference between the amount of rice ORS and the amount of glucose ORS taken over 3 hours. The discovery of oral rehydration solution (ORS) for the treatment of diarrheal disease has been heralded as the most important medical discovery of the century. Cereal-based ORS is able to decrease stool output and the duration of diarrheal illness more than the standard glucose-based ORS, through the increased absorption provided by oligosaccharides without the imposition of a greater osmotic penalty. Moreover, the peptides in cereals enhance amino acid and water absorption, while providing nutritional benefits. UNICEF's glucose-based ORS is becoming more widely used in Papua New Guinea (PNG). 20 children aged 6-37 months (mean age, 15 months) who presented to the Children's Outpatient Department at Port Moresby General Hospital during September-October 1993 with acute diarrhea and mild dehydration were randomly assigned to receive either a rice-based ORS or standard glucose ORS, and measurements were taken over the following 3 hours. The patients were paired by weight for analysis. No statistically significant difference was found between the amount of rice ORS and the amount of glucose ORS taken over 3 hours.

Acceptability of a rice-based oral rehydration solution in Port Moresby General Hospital's Children's Outpatient Department

The guardians of children brought to the Port Moresby General Hospital's Children's Outpatient Department with a chief complaint of diarrhoeal disease were questioned regarding their preference of glucose-based vs rice-based oral rehydration solution (ORS) in order to determine the acceptability of a rice-based ORS. Of the 93 guardians interviewed, greater than 60% preferred the glucose-based solution in its mixability, appearance and taste, and 65% initially reported that their children preferred the taste of the glucose solution. However, after a 30-minute trial, only 58% of children still preferred the glucose solution. In a country where diarrhoeal disease is a leading cause of child death and guardians are the primary health care providers, the acceptability of an ORS is critical to the morbidity and mortality of Papua New Guinea's children. Killing an estimated 2.9 million children annually, diarrheal disease is the second leading cause of child mortality worldwide. Diarrheal disease is also the second leading cause of child mortality in Papua New Guinea (PNG), killing an average 193 inpatient children per year over the period 1984-90. However, despite the high level of diarrhea-related mortality and the proven efficacy of oral rehydration therapy (ORT) in managing diarrhea-related dehydration, standardized ORT has been underutilized in PNG. The current glucose-based oral rehydration solution (ORS) does not reduce the frequency or volume of a child's diarrhea, the most immediate concern of caregivers during episodes of illness. Cereal-based ORS, made from cereals which are commonly available as food staples in most countries, better address the short-term concerns of caregivers while offering a superior nutritional profile. A sample of guardians of children brought to the Port Moresby General Hospital's Children's Outpatient Department complaining of child diarrhea were asked about their preferences on glucose-based versus rice-based ORS in order to determine the acceptability of a rice-based ORS. More than 60% of the 93 guardians interviewed preferred the glucose-based solution for its mixability, appearance, and taste. 65% initially reported that their children preferred the taste of the glucose solution. However, after a 30-minute trial, only 58% of children still preferred the glucose solution.

On the moulding of population viscosity by natural selection

In this paper, we explore the conjoint evolution of dispersal and social behaviour. The model investigated is of a population distributed over a number of sites each with a carrying capacity of two adults and an episode of dispersal in the juvenile stage. The fertilities are governed by whether an individual and its neighbour are selfish or co-operative. It is shown that the best dispersal strategy for the co-operative genotype always involves lower levels of dispersal; and further that ecological conditions favouring low levels of dispersal increase the selective advantage of a co-operative genotype. Given this positive feedback, we suggest that in any taxon viscosity and co-operativity will tend to be correlated and bimodally distributed. Hence we predict the existence of two kinds of animal societies; viscous and co-operative (e.g. quasi-social wasps such as Mischocyttarus), and non-viscous and selfish (e.g. communal sphecid wasps such as Cerceris), and relatively few social groups with intermediate levels of co-operativity and viscosity. We also suggest that when one of the two sexes disperses, it will be the sex with lower potential for co-operative behaviour.

Tissue culture of forest trees: Clonal multiplication of Eucalyptus grandis L

Axillary shoot proliferation was obtained using explants of Eucalyptus grandis L. juvenile and mature stages on a defined medium. Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) supplemented with benzyladenine (BA), naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and additional thiamine. Excised shoots were induced to root on a sequence of three media: (1) White's medium containing indoleacetic acid (IAA), NAA and indole butyric acid; (IBA), (2) half-strength MS medium with charcoal and (3) half-strength MS liquid medium. The two types of explants differed in rooting response, with juvenile-derived shoots giving 60% rooting and adult-derived ones only 35%. Thus, the factors limiting cloning of selected trees in vitro are determined to be those controlling rooting of shoots in E. grandis.

Estimating the efficiency of a small beam trawl for sampling tiger prawns Penaeus esculentus and P. semisulcatus in seagrass by removal experiments

The efficiency with which a small beam trawl (1 x 0.5 m mouth) sampled postlarvae and juveniles of tiger prawns Penaeus esculentus and P, semisulcatus at night was estimated in 3 tropical seagrass communities (dominated by Thalassia hemprichii, Syringodium isoetifolium and Enhalus acoroides, respectively) in the shallow waters of the Gulf of Carpentaria in northern Australia. An area of seagrass (40 x 3 m) was enclosed by a net and the beam trawl was repeatedly hand-hauled over the substrate. Net efficiency (q) was calculated using 4 methods: the unweighted Leslie, weighted Leslie, DeLury and Maximum-likelihood (ML) methods. The Maximum-likelihood is the preferred method for estimating efficiency because it makes the fewest assumptions and is not affected by zero catches. The major difference in net efficiencies was between postlarvae (mean ML q +/- 95% confidence limits = 0.66 +/- 0.16) and juveniles of both species (mean q for juveniles in water less than or equal to 1.0 m deep = 0.47 +/- 0.05), i.e. the beam trawl was more efficient at capturing postlarvae than juveniles. There was little difference in net efficiency for P, esculentus between seagrass types (T, hemprichii versus S. isoetifolium), even though the biomass and morphologies of seagrass in these communities differed greatly (biomasses were 54 and 204 g m(-2), respectively). The efficiency of the net appeared to be the same for juveniles of the 2 species in shallow water, but was lower for juvenile P, semisulcatus at high tide when the water was deeper (1.6 to 1.9 m) (0.35 +/- 0.08). The lower efficiency near the time of high tide is possibly because the prawns are more active at high than low tide, and can also escape above the net. Factors affecting net efficiency and alternative methods of estimating net efficiency are discussed.

Effects of added shelter and stocking density on growth of sleepy cod Oxyeleotris lineolatus in ponds

Sleepy cod Oxyeleotris lineolatus is a species of freshwater goby in demand in Australian markets by consumers of Asian origin. It is related to marble goby Oxyeleotris marmoratus, the most expensive freshwater food fish in Asia, which is cultured throughout southeast Asia in ponds and cages. The performance of sleepy cod in culture conditions was investigated to assess the viability of farming them in northern Australia. Sleepy cod fingerlings (62.8 +/- 0.8 mm total length and 2.56 +/- 0.095 g) were stocked into experimental ponds at 32,857 fish/ha, and grown out for 8 mo. Shelter was provided in each of three replicate ponds and was absent in three control ponds. The provision of shelter in juvenile growout was found to be of no benefit, although fish in ponds provided with shelter weighed slightly more per unit length than fish in ponds without shelter. Cannibalism was not a problem in growout, and survival was close to 100%. After the shelter trial was completed, fish were graded into large and small classes (three replicates of each), and grown out without shelter at the same density for 158 d. Following that, fish were again graded, and the largest 30% retained from growout at a density of 8,857 fish/ha (large, 198 +/-6.44 g) or 10,000 fish/ha (small, 48.9 +/-1.27 g). These were grown out for 188 d. Growth of selected stock at low densities was slower than earlier growth rates, although smaller fish gained weight more rapidly than larger fish. Growth rates were better than the only published data for marble goby. Further investigation into high density culture and different genotypes of sleepy cod needs to be undertaken to determine the viability of pond culture.

Production of microalgal concentrates by flocculation and their assessment as aquaculture feeds

A novel technique was developed for the flocculation of marine microalgae commonly used in aquaculture. The process entailed an adjustment of pH of culture to between 10 and 10.6 using NaOH, followed by addition of a non-ionic polymer Magnafloc LT-25 to a final concentration of 0.5 mg L-1. The ensuing flocculate was harvested, and neutralised giving a final concentration factor of between 200- and 800-fold. This process was successfully applied to harvest cells of Chaetoceros calcitrans, C. muelleri, Thalassiosira pseudonana, Attheya septentrionalis, Nitzschia closterium, Skeletonema sp., Tetraselmis suecica and Rhodomonas salina, with efficiencies >=80%. The process was rapid, simple and inexpensive, and relatively cost neutral with increasing volume (cf. concentration by centrifugation). Harvested material was readily disaggregated to single cell suspensions by dilution in seawater and mild agitation. Microscopic examination of the cells showed them to be indistinguishable from corresponding non-flocculated cells. Chlorophyll analysis of concentrates prepared from cultures of Concentrates of T. pseudonana prepared using pH-induced flocculation gave better growth of juvenile Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas) than concentrates prepared by ferric flocculation, or centrifuged concentrates using a cream separator or laboratory centrifuge. In follow up experiments, concentrates prepared from 1000 L Chaetoceros muelleri cultures were effective as supplementary diets to improve the growth of juvenile C. gigas and the scallop Pecten fumatus reared under commercial conditions, though not as effective as the corresponding live algae. The experiments demonstrated a proof-of-concept for a commercial application of concentrates prepared by flocculation, especially for use at a remote nursery without on-site mass-algal culture facilities.

Impact of resistance on the efficacy of binary combinations of spinosad, chlorpyrifos-methyl and s-methoprene against five stored-grain beetles

Laboratory experiments were conducted to determine the efficacy of spinosad (a biopesticide), chlorpyrifos-methyl (an organophosphorus compound (OP)) and s-methoprene (a juvenile hormone analogue) applied alone and in binary combinations against five stored-grain beetles in wheat. There were three strains of Rhyzopertha dominica, and one strain each of Sitophilus oryzae, Tribolium castaneum, Oryzaephilus surinamensis and Cryptolestes ferrugineus. These strains were chosen to represent a range of possible resistant genotypes, exhibiting resistance to organophosphates, pyrethroids or methoprene. Treatments were applied at rates that are registered or likely to be registered in Australia. Adults were exposed to freshly treated wheat for 2 weeks, and the effects of treatments on mortality and reproduction were determined. No single protectant or protectant combination controlled all insect strains, based on the criterion of >99% reduction in the number of live F1 adults relative to the control. The most effective combinations were spinosad at 1 mg kg-1+chlorpyrifos-methyl at 10 mg kg-1 which controlled all strains except for OP-resistant O. surinamensis, and chlorpyrifos-methyl at 10 mg kg-1+s-methoprene at 0.6 mg kg-1 which controlled all strains except for methoprene-resistant R. dominica. The results of this study demonstrate the difficulty in Australia, and potentially other countries which use protectants, of finding protectant treatments to control a broad range of pest species in the face of resistance development.

Cannibalism contributes significantly to the diet of cultured sand crabs, Portunus pelagicus (L.): A dual stable isotope study

The significance of cannibalism in the diet of juvenile pond-cultured blue swimmer crabs (Portunus pelagicus (L.)) was investigated using dual stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen. In a laboratory feeding experiment, δ15N demonstrated a constant trophic shift (Δδ15N ≈+ 1.6‰), and therefore seemed to be a reliable indicator for assessing trophic position for P. pelagicus. This agrees with previously reported trends. Difference in growth rate did not seem to influence δ15N values. In contrast, δ13C did not display consistent shifts between trophic levels (range of Δδ13C: + 1 to + 1.7‰). The results from the pond experiment showed that larger individuals had a more enriched δ15N than smaller individuals, which, when compared to the results from the laboratory experiment, indicates that larger individuals were at a higher trophic level. This is most likely due to cannibalism prevailing in the pond rather than a direct result of faster growth rate. Cannibalistic behaviour might further increase growth, resulting in the observed positive correlation between size and δ15N.

In vitro propagation of Corymbia torelliana x C. citriodora (Myrtaceae) via cytokinin-free node culture

Hybrids between Corymbia torelliana (F.Muell.) K.D.Hill & L.A.S.Johnson and C. citriodora subsp. variegata (F.Muell.) A.R.Bean & M.W.McDonald are used extensively to establish forestry plantations in subtropical Australia. Methods were developed for in vitro seed germination, shoot multiplication and plantlet formation that could be used to establish in vitro and ex vitro clone banks of juvenile Corymbia hybrids. Effects of sodium hypochlorite concentration and exposure time on seed contamination and germination, and effects of cytokinin and auxin concentrations on shoot multiplication and subsequent rooting, were assessed. A two-step surface sterilisation procedure, involving 70% ethanol followed by 1% sodium hypochlorite, provided almost no contamination and at least 88% germination. A novel method of cytokinin-free node culture proved most effective for in vitro propagation. Lateral bud break of primary shoots was difficult to induce by using cytokinin, but primary shoots rooted prolifically, elongated rapidly and produced multiple nodes in the absence of exogenous cytokinin. Further multiplication was obtained either by elongating lateral shoots of nodal explants in cytokinin-free medium or by inducing organogenic callus and axillary shoot proliferation with 2.2 µm benzyladenine. Plantlets were produced using an in vitro soil-less method that provided extensive rooting in sterile propagation mixture. These methods provide a means for simultaneous laboratory storage and field-testing of clones before selection and multiplication of desired genotypes.

Mortality and blood loss by blue swimmer crabs (Portunus pelagicus) after simulated capture and discarding from gillnets

Two laboratory experiments were carried out to quantify the mortality and physiological responses of juvenile blue swimmer crabs (Portunus pelagicus) after simulated gillnet entanglement, air exposure, disentanglement, and discarding. In both experiments, all but control blue swimmer crabs were entangled in 1-m(2) gillnet panels for 1 h, exposed to air for 2 min, subjected to various treatments of disentanglement ranging between the forceful removal of none, one, two, and four appendages, then "discarded" into individual experimental tanks and monitored for 10 d. In Experiment 1, mortalities were associated with the number of appendages removed and the occurrence of unsealed wounds. In Experiment 2, live blue swimmer crabs were sampled for blood at 2 min and 6, 24, and 72 h post-discarding to test for the effects of disentanglement and appendage removal on total haemocyte counts, clotting times, protein levels (by refractive index), and blood ion concentrations. Compared with blue swimmer crabs that had sealed or no wounds, those with unsealed wounds had lower total haemocyte counts, protein, and calcium concentrations and increased clotting ties and magnesium and sodium levels. Induced autotomy, as opposed to the arbitrary, forceful removal of a appendages has the potential to minimize the mortality and stress of discarded, juvenile blue swimmer crabs.