The influence of human rights on land rights and spatial information

This paper reviews the growing influence of human rights issues on land rights, administration, management and tenure. In the last few decades, attention focussed on integrating economic and environmental considerations to achieve sustainable land use. The World Trade Organisation began in 1995. As a condition of membership, nations undertook legislative programmes aimed at reducing price distortions and barriers to international trade. Reducing trade barriers has direct effects on agricultural production as a major land use. Similarly, as signatories to the 1992 Rio Declaration, nations undertook caring for and reporting on the state of the environment. However, quality of life is also an issue in deciding what is sustainable development. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, proclaimed in 1948, provided a framework for a series of international human rights conventions. These conventions now influence national legislative programmes. The purpose of this paper is to review some of the implications of human rights on rights in land and the production and use of spatial information.

The changing role of copyright in China’s emergent media economy

This chapter introduces the changing role of copyright in China from a historical perspective. It begins by briefly tracing the history of copyright, from a censorship-related system associated with the emergence of the printing press in imperial China, through modernisation during the Republican period, abolition under communism and finally to the introduction of the People's Republic of China's (PRC) first copyright law in 1990 and the nation's entry into the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in 2001.

Destination branding performance measurement for practitioners

While academic interest in destination branding has been gathering momentum since the field commenced in the late 1990s, one important gap in this literature that has received relatively little attention to date is the measurement of destination brand performance. This paper sets out one method for assessing the performance of a destination brand over time. The intent is to present an approach that will appeal to marketing practitioners, and which is also conceptually sound. The method is underpinned by Decision Set Theory and the concept of Consumer-Based Brand Equity (CBBE), while the key variables mirror the branding objectives used by many destination marketing organisations (DMO). The approach is demonstrated in this paper to measure brand performance for Australia in the New Zealand market. It is suggested the findings provide indicators of both i) the success of previous marketing communications, and ii) future performance, which can be easily communicated to a DMO’s stakeholders.

Risk modelling in quality clinical registries : Monitoring lesion treatment failure rate in percutaneous coronary interventions

Aims: This paper describes the development of a risk adjustment (RA) model predictive of individual lesion treatment failure in percutaneous coronary interventions (PCI) for use in a quality monitoring and improvement program. Methods and results: Prospectively collected data for 3972 consecutive revascularisation procedures (5601 lesions) performed between January 2003 and September 2011 were studied. Data on procedures to September 2009 (n = 3100) were used to identify factors predictive of lesion treatment failure. Factors identified included lesion risk class (p < 0.001), occlusion type (p < 0.001), patient age (p = 0.001), vessel system (p < 0.04), vessel diameter (p < 0.001), unstable angina (p = 0.003) and presence of major cardiac risk factors (p = 0.01). A Bayesian RA model was built using these factors with predictive performance of the model tested on the remaining procedures (area under the receiver operating curve: 0.765, Hosmer–Lemeshow p value: 0.11). Cumulative sum, exponentially weighted moving average and funnel plots were constructed using the RA model and subjectively evaluated. Conclusion: A RA model was developed and applied to SPC monitoring for lesion failure in a PCI database. If linked to appropriate quality improvement governance response protocols, SPC using this RA tool might improve quality control and risk management by identifying variation in performance based on a comparison of observed and expected outcomes.

Property : a regulatory instrument for protecting private and public interests in the environment

Property in an elusive concept. In many respects it has been regarded as a source of authority to use, develop and make decisions about whatever is the subject matter of this right of ownership. This is true whether the holder of this right of ownership is a private entity or a public entity. Increasingly a right of ownership of this kind has been recognised not only as a source of authority but also as a mechanism for restricting or limiting and perhaps even prohibiting existing or proposed activities that impact upon the environment. It is increasingly therefore an instrument of regulation as much as an instrument of authorisation. The protection and conservation of the environment are ultimately a matter of the public interest. This is not to suggest that the individual holders of rights of ownership are not interested in protecting the environment. It is open to them to do so in the exercise of a right of ownership as a source of authorisation. However a right of ownership – whether private or public – has become increasingly the mechanism according to which the environment is protected and conserved through the use of rights of ownership as a means of regulation. This paper addressed these issues from a doctrinal as well as a practical perspective in how the environment is managed.

Violation of labour rights in the ship-breaking yards of Bangladesh

Ship-breaking started as an industry in Bangladesh in the early 1970s. This industry is not technically organized, and the management is also primitive and unsound. Although specific information is not available, it is estimated that about 700 workers have been killed and, at the same time, a total of 10,000 workers have been injured in explosions at the ship-breaking yards over the last three decades. This process continues unabated in the absence of specific legislation for regulating ship-breaking industries in Bangladesh. Against this backdrop, this paper identifies the major issues relating to enforcement of labour rights in the ship-breaking yards of Bangladesh.

The importance of individual characteristics in experimental economic research

This thesis advances the knowledge of behavioural economics on the importance of individual characteristics – such as gender, personality or culture – for choices relevant to labour and insurance markets. It does so using economic experiments, survey tools and physiological data, collected in economic laboratories and in the field. More specifically, the thesis includes 5 experimental economic studies investigating individual-specific characteristics (gender, age, personality, cultural background) in decisions influenced by risk attitudes and social preferences. One of these characteristics is the physiological state of decision-makers, measured by heart rate variability. The results show that individual-specific characteristics play an important role for choices affected by social preferences, a finding to a lesser degree observable for risk preferences. This finding is confirmed under revealed incentivised choices and when studying (latent) physiological responses of decision-makers.

Knowledge is not power, but it’s a start : what young people know about their rights and obligations in employment

Scholarship addressing the employment concerns of school age workers has identified a number of areas of vulnerability. Prominent among these is that young workers have insufficient knowledge of their rights in employment, yet the extent of this knowledge has not previously been quantified. This study explores areas of strength and deficit in awareness of employment rights and obligations in a sample of 892 young people in Australian high schools. The findings demonstrate that, despite part-time work being a majority experience for school students, young Australians know relatively little of their employment rights. The conclusions underscore the need for education strategies that inform young people prior to and in the very early stages of their working lives.

The individual and interactive relationship between long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and physical activity as predictors of cognition in cognitively impaired and non-impaired older adults

Alterations in cognitive function are characteristic of the aging process in humans and other animals. However, the nature of these age related changes in cognition is complex and is likely to be influenced by interactions between genetic predispositions and environmental factors resulting in dynamic fluctuations within and between individuals. These inter and intra-individual fluctuations are evident in both so-called normal cognitive aging and at the onset of cognitive pathology. Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI), thought to be a prodromal phase of dementia, represents perhaps the final opportunity to mitigate cognitive declines that may lead to terminal conditions such as dementia. The prognosis for people with MCI is mixed with the evidence suggesting that many will remain stable within 10-years of diagnosis, many will improve, and many will transition to dementia. If the characteristics of people who do not progress to dementia from MCI can be identified and replicated in others it may be possible to reduce or delay dementia onset, thus reducing a growing personal and public health burden. Furthermore, if MCI onset can be prevented or delayed, the burden of cognitive decline in aging populations worldwide may be reduced. A cognitive domain that is sensitive to the effects of advancing age, and declines in which have been shown to presage the onset of dementia in MCI patients, is executive function. Moreover, environmental factors such as diet and physical activity have been shown to affect performance on tests of executive function. For example, improvements in executive function have been demonstrated as a result of increased aerobic and anaerobic physical activity and, although the evidence is not as strong, findings from dietary interventions suggest certain nutrients may preserve or improve executive functions in old age. These encouraging findings have been demonstrated in older adults with MCI and their non-impaired peers. However, there are some gaps in the literature that need to be addressed. For example, little is known about the effect on cognition of an interaction between diet and physical activity. Both are important contributors to health and wellbeing, and a growing body of evidence attests to their importance in mental and cognitive health in aging individuals. Yet physical activity and diet are rarely considered together in the context of cognitive function. There is also little known about potential underlying biological mechanisms that might explain the physical activity/diet/cognition relationship. The first aim of this program of research was to examine the individual and interactive role of physical activity and diet, specifically long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid consumption(LCn3) as predictors of MCI status. The second aim is to examine executive function in MCI in the context of the individual and interactive effects of physical activity and LCn3.. A third aim was to explore the role of immune and endocrine system biomarkers as possible mediators in the relationship between LCn3, physical activity and cognition. Study 1a was a cross-sectional analysis of MCI status as a function of erythrocyte proportions of an interaction between physical activity and LCn3. The marine based LCn3s eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) have both received support in the literature as having cognitive benefits, although comparisons of the relative benefits of EPA or DHA, particularly in relation to the aetiology of MCI, are rare. Furthermore, a limited amount of research has examined the cognitive benefits of physical activity in terms of MCI onset. No studies have examined the potential interactive benefits of physical activity and either EPA or DHA. Eighty-four male and female adults aged 65 to 87 years, 50 with MCI and 34 without, participated in Study 1a. A logistic binary regression was conducted with MCI status as a dependent variable, and the individual and interactive relationships between physical activity and either EPA or DHA as predictors. Physical activity was measured using a questionnaire and specific physical activity categories were weighted according to the metabolic equivalents (METs) of each activity to create a physical activity intensity index (PAI). A significant relationship was identified between MCI outcome and the interaction between the PAI and EPA; participants with a higher PAI and higher erythrocyte proportions of EPA were more likely to be classified as non-MCI than their less active peers with less EPA. Study 1b was a randomised control trial using the participants from Study 1a who were identified with MCI. Given the importance of executive function as a determinant of progression to more severe forms of cognitive impairment and dementia, Study 1b aimed to examine the individual and interactive effect of physical activity and supplementation with either EPA or DHA on executive function in a sample of older adults with MCI. Fifty male and female participants were randomly allocated to supplementation groups to receive 6-months of supplementation with EPA, or DHA, or linoleic acid (LA), a long chain polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid not known for its cognitive enhancing properties. Physical activity was measured using the PAI from Study 1a at baseline and follow-up. Executive function was measured using five tests thought to measure different executive function domains. Erythrocyte proportions of EPA and DHA were higher at follow-up; however, PAI was not significantly different. There was also a significant improvement in three of the five executive function tests at follow-up. However, regression analyses revealed that none of the variance in executive function at follow-up was predicted by EPA, DHA, PAI, the EPA by PAI interaction, or the DHA by PAI interaction. The absence of an effect may be due to a small sample resulting in limited power to find an effect, the lack of change in physical activity over time in terms of volume and/or intensity, or a combination of both reduced power and no change in physical activity. Study 2a was a cross-sectional study using cognitively unimpaired older adults to examine the individual and interactive effects of LCn3 and PAI on executive function. Several possible explanations for the absence of an effect were identified. From this consideration of alternative explanations it was hypothesised that post-onset interventions with LCn3 either alone or in interation with self-reported physical activity may not be beneficial in MCI. Thus executive function responses to the individual and interactive effects of physical activity and LCn3 were examined in a sample of older male and female adults without cognitive impairment (n = 50). A further aim of study 2a was to operationalise executive function using principal components analysis (PCA) of several executive function tests. This approach was used firstly as a data reduction technique to overcome the task impurity problem, and secondly to examine the executive function structure of the sample for evidence of de-differentiation. Two executive function components were identified as a result of the PCA (EF 1 and EF 2). However, EPA, DHA, the PAI, or the EPA by PAI or DHA by PAI interactions did not account for any variance in the executive function components in subsequent hierarchical multiple regressions. Study 2b was an exploratory correlational study designed to explore the possibility that immune and endocrine system biomarkers may act as mediators of the relationship between LCn3, PAI, the interaction between LCn3 and PAI, and executive functions. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), an endocrine system growth hormone, and interleukin-6 (IL-6) an immune system cytokine involved in the acute inflammatory response, have both been shown to affect cognition including executive functions. Moreover, IGF-1 and IL-6 have been shown to be antithetical in so far as chronically increased IL-6 has been associated with reduced IGF-1 levels, a relationship that has been linked to age related morbidity. Further, physical activity and LCn3 have been shown to modulate levels of both IGF-1 and IL-6. Thus, it is possible that the cognitive enhancing effects of LCn3, physical activity or their interaction are mediated by changes in the balance between IL-6 and IGF-1. Partial and non-parametric correlations were conducted in a subsample of participants from Study 2a (n = 13) to explore these relationships. Correlations of interest did not reach significance; however, the coefficients were quite large for several relationships suggesting studies with larger samples may be warranted. In summary, the current program of research found some evidence supporting an interaction between EPA, not DHA, and higher energy expenditure via physical activity in differentiating between older adults with and without MCI. However, a RCT examining executive function in older adults with MCI found no support for increasing EPA or DHA while maintaining current levels of energy expenditure. Furthermore, a cross-sectional study examining executive function in older adults without MCI found no support for better executive function performance as a function of increased EPA or DHA consumption, greater energy expenditure via physical activity or an interaction between physical activity and either EPA or DHA. Finally, an examination of endocrine and immune system biomarkers revealed promising relationships in terms of executive function in non-MCI older adults particularly with respect to LCn3 and physical activity. Taken together, these findings demonstrate a potential benefit of increasing physical activity and LCn3 consumption, particularly EPA, in mitigating the risk of developing MCI. In contrast, no support was found for a benefit to executive function as a result of increased physical activity, LCn3 consumption or an interaction between physical activity and LCn3, in participants with and without MCI. These results are discussed with reference to previous findings in the literature including possible limitations and opportunities for future research.

Health effects of daily airborne particle dose in children : direct association between personal dose and respiratory health effects

Air pollution is a widespread health problem associated with respiratory symptoms. Continuous exposure monitoring was performed to estimate alveolar and tracheobronchial dose, measured as deposited surface area, for 103 children and to evaluate the long-term effects of exposure to airborne particles through spirometry, skin prick tests and measurement of exhaled nitric oxide (eNO). The mean daily alveolar deposited surface area dose received by children was 1.35×103 mm2. The lowest and highest particle number concentrations were found during sleeping and eating time. A significant negative association was found between changes in pulmonary function tests and individual dose estimates. Significant differences were found for asthmatics, children with allergic rhinitis and sensitive to allergens compared to healthy subjects for eNO. Variation is a child’s activity over time appeared to have a strong impact on respiratory outcomes, which indicates that personal monitoring is vital for assessing the expected health effects of exposure to particles.

Addressing vulnerability and human rights in disaster response mechanisms in Oceania

The Oceania region is an area particularly prone to natural disasters such as cyclones, tsunamis, floods, droughts, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Many of the nations in the region are Small Island Developing States (SIDS), yet even within wealthy states such as Australia and New Zealand there are groups which are vulnerable to disaster. Vulnerability to natural disaster can be understood in human rights terms, as natural disasters threaten the enjoyment of a number of rights which are guaranteed under international law, including rights to health, housing, food, water and even the right to life itself. The impacts of climate change threaten to exacerbate these vulnerabilities, yet, despite the foreseeability of further natural disasters as a result of climate change, there currently exists no comprehensive international framework for disaster response offering practical and/or legally reliable mechanisms to assist at‐risk states and communities. This paper sets out to explore the human rights issues presented by natural disasters and examine the extent to which these issues can be addressed by disaster response frameworks at the international, regional and national levels.

From rights to responsibilities : reconceptualising carbon sequestration rights in Australia

Biosequestration of carbon in trees, forests and vegetation is a key method for mitigating climate change in Australia. To facilitate this, all States have enacted legislation for carbon sequestration rights, separating commercial rights in carbon from ownership of the land, trees and vegetation in which the carbon is sequestered. Ownership of carbon sequestration rights under state law is a prerequisite for the issue of carbon credits to proponents of ‘eligible sequestration offsets projects’ under the Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth) (‘Carbon Farming Act’). This article examines the extent to which current State carbon sequestration rights support the offsets regime established by the Carbon Farming Act. The Commonwealth Act is concerned with allocating responsibilities to ensure the maintenance of the carbon sequestration, while the State Acts confer commercial rights in the carbon and leave the responsibilities to be allocated by private agreements. The carbon sequestration rights as defined by state laws do not confer the rights of access and management over land that a project proponent needs in order to discharge its responsibilities to maintain the carbon sequestration.

Copyright protections and disability rights : turning the page to a new international paradigm

This paper argues that governments around the world need to take immediate coordinated action to reverse the 'book famine.' There are over 129 million book titles in the world, but persons with print disabilities can obtain less than 7% of these titles in formats that they can read. The situation is most acute in developing countries, where less than 1% of books are accessible. Two recent international developments – the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (‘CRPD’) and the new Marrakesh Treaty to Facilitate Access to Published Works for Persons who are Blind, Visually Impaired, or otherwise Print Disabled (somewhat ironically nicknamed the ‘VIP Treaty’) – suggest that nation states are increasingly willing to take action to reverse the book famine. The Marrakesh Treaty promises to level out some of the disparity of access between people in developed and developing nations and remove the need for each jurisdiction to digitise a separate copy of each book. This is a remarkable advance, and suggests the beginnings of a possible paradigm shift in global copyright politicsmade all the more remarkable in the face of heated opposition by global copyright industry representatives. Now that the Marrakesh Treaty has been concluded, however, we argue that a substantial exercise of global political will is required to (a) invest the funds required to digitise existing books; and (b) avert any further harm by ensuring that books published in the future are made accessible upon their release.

An examination of tax-deductible donations made by individual Australian taxpayers in 2010-11

Each year, The Australian Centre for Philanthropy and Nonprofit Studies (CPNS) at Queensland University of Technology (QUT) collects and analyses statistics on the amount and extent of tax-deductible donations made and claimed by Australians in their individual income tax returns to deductible gift recipients (DGRs). The information presented below is based on the amount and type of tax-deductible donations made and claimed by Australian individual taxpayers to DGRs for the period 1 July 2010 to 30 June 2011. This information has been extracted mainly from the Australian Taxation Office's (ATO) publication Taxation Statistics 2010-11. The 2010-11 report is the latest report that has been made publicly available. It represents information in tax returns for the 2010-11 year processed by the ATO as at 31 October 2012.