Measurements of Volatile Organic Compounds - from Biogenic Emissions to Concentrations in Ambient Air

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) affect atmospheric chemistry and thereafter also participate in the climate change in many ways. The long-lived greenhouse gases and tropospheric ozone are the most important radiative forcing components warming the climate, while aerosols are the most important cooling component. VOCs can have warming effects on the climate: they participate in tropospheric ozone formation and compete for oxidants with the greenhouse gases thus, for example, lengthening the atmospheric lifetime of methane. Some VOCs, on the other hand, cool the atmosphere by taking part in the formation of aerosol particles. Some VOCs, in addition, have direct health effects, such as carcinogenic benzene. VOCs are emitted into the atmosphere in various processes. Primary emissions of VOC include biogenic emissions from vegetation, biomass burning and human activities. VOCs are also produced in secondary emissions from the reactions of other organic compounds. Globally, forests are the largest source of VOC entering the atmosphere. This thesis focuses on the measurement results of emissions and concentrations of VOCs in one of the largest vegetation zones in the world, the boreal zone. An automated sampling system was designed and built for continuous VOC concentration and emission measurements with a proton transfer reaction - mass spectrometer (PTR-MS). The system measured one hour at a time in three-hourly cycles: 1) ambient volume mixing-ratios of VOCs in the Scots-pine-dominated boreal forest, 2) VOC fluxes above the canopy, and 3) VOC emissions from Scots pine shoots. In addition to the online PTR-MS measurements, we determined the composition and seasonality of the VOC emissions from a Siberian larch with adsorbent samples and GC-MS analysis. The VOC emissions from Siberian larch were reported for the fist time in the literature. The VOC emissions were 90% monoterpenes (mainly sabinene) and the rest sesquiterpenes (mainly a-farnesene). The normalized monoterpene emission potentials were highest in late summer, rising again in late autumn. The normalized sesquiterpene emission potentials were also highest in late summer, but decreased towards the autumn. The emissions of mono- and sesquiterpenes from the deciduous Siberian larch, as well as the emissions of monoterpenes measured from the evergreen Scots pine, were well described by the temperature-dependent algorithm. In the Scots-pine-dominated forest, canopy-scale emissions of monoterpenes and oxygenated VOCs (OVOCs) were of the same magnitude. Methanol and acetone were the most abundant OVOCs emitted from the forest and also in the ambient air. Annually, methanol and mixing ratios were of the order of 1 ppbv. The monoterpene and sum of isoprene 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol (MBO) volume mixing-ratios were an order of magnitude lower. The majority of the monoterpene and methanol emissions from the Scots-pinedominated forest were explained by emissions from Scots pine shoots. The VOCs were divided into three classes based on the dynamics of the summer-time concentrations: 1) reactive compounds with local biological, anthropogenic or chemical sources (methanol, acetone, butanol and hexanal), 2) compounds whose emissions are only temperaturedependent (monoterpenes), 3) long-lived compounds (benzene, acetaldehyde). Biogenic VOC (methanol, acetone, isoprene MBO and monoterpene) volume mixing-ratios had clear diurnal patterns during summer. The ambient mixing ratios of other VOCs did not show this behaviour. During winter we did not observe systematical diurnal cycles for any of the VOCs. Different sources, removal processes and turbulent mixing explained the dynamics of the measured mixing-ratios qualitatively. However, quantitative understanding will require longterm emission measurements of the OVOCs and the use of comprehensive chemistry models. Keywords: Hydrocarbons, VOC, fluxes, volume mixing-ratio, boreal forest

Impact of riparian land use on stream insects of Kudremukh National Park, Karnataka state, India

The impact of riparian land use on the stream insect communities was studied at Kudremukh National Park located within Western Ghats, a tropical biodiversity hotspot in India. The diversity and community composition of stream insects varied across streams with different riparian land use types. The rarefied family and generic richness was highest in streams with natural semi evergreen forests as riparian vegetation. However, when the streams had human habitations and areca nut plantations as riparian land use type, the rarefied richness was higher than that of streams with natural evergreen forests and grasslands. The streams with scrub lands and iron ore mining as the riparian land use had the lowest rarefied richness. Within a landscape, the streams with the natural riparian vegetation had similar community composition. However, streams with natural grasslands as the riparian vegetation, had low diversity and the community composition was similar to those of paddy fields. We discuss how stream insect assemblages differ due to varied riparian land use patterns, reflecting fundamental alterations in the functioning of stream ecosystems. This understanding is vital to conserve, manage and restore tropical riverine ecosystems.

Children’s Relationship to Plants among Primary School Children in Finland

There is considerable evidence that children in modern society are losing
their contact with nature and, more precisely, with green plants. Is this also the case in Finland, a northern country famous for its forests and wild nature? This study examines the relationship of 9- to 10-year-old Finnish schoolchildren with the green environment and plants. The data were gathered by a questionnaire
comprising structured and open-ended questions. The focus of the research was on two comparisons: first, on the nature and child relationship in rural and urban neighborhoods and, second, among boys and girls. Participants in the study amounted to a total of 76 children, 42 in the Helsinki suburb area and 34 in Paltamo. The results suggested that the children in rural surroundings had closer contact with nature than their urban associates. For example, the children of Paltamo reported to know the trees better, and considered human beings to be part of nature more often (100% vs. 76% of the pupils in Helsinki, P = 0,003). Similarly, the results showed that girls in the study (N = 48) were more interested in plants than boys (N = 28). For the girls, the beauty and joy of plants was important, whereas the boys appreciated plants as the source of life. After the pre-questioning, the children of Helsinki participated in an in-class horticultural intervention and 10 days later, answered a similar questionnaire again. The results of the open-ended questions revealed that equally to children in other Western countries, Finnish children may also be in danger of losing their direct contact with the natural environment. It was common to pass free time in organized sports such as hockey or football (boys), or by just walking and talking with friends (girls). Rural children told that they still built huts, pick berries, and climb trees, whereas urban children played in parks and city groves. The results suggest that it is essential to research
further the children’s own experiences if we are to understand, and subsequently, to enhance, the crucial role of the green environment in their lives. Horticultural interventions can be effective starting points to add to children’s knowledge, affection, and interest toward greenery, but it is highly recommended that they take place outdoors rather than indoors.

Children’s Relationship to Plants among Primary School Children in Finland

There is considerable evidence that children in modern society are losing
their contact with nature and, more precisely, with green plants. Is this also the case in Finland, a northern country famous for its forests and wild nature? This study examines the relationship of 9- to 10-year-old Finnish schoolchildren with the green environment and plants. The data were gathered by a questionnaire
comprising structured and open-ended questions. The focus of the research was on two comparisons: first, on the nature and child relationship in rural and urban neighborhoods and, second, among boys and girls. Participants in the study amounted to a total of 76 children, 42 in the Helsinki suburb area and 34 in Paltamo. The results suggested that the children in rural surroundings had closer contact with nature than their urban associates. For example, the children of Paltamo reported to know the trees better, and considered human beings to be part of nature more often (100% vs. 76% of the pupils in Helsinki, P = 0,003). Similarly, the results showed that girls in the study (N = 48) were more interested in plants than boys (N = 28). For the girls, the beauty and joy of plants was important, whereas the boys appreciated plants as the source of life. After the pre-questioning, the children of Helsinki participated in an in-class horticultural intervention and 10 days later, answered a similar questionnaire again. The results of the open-ended questions revealed that equally to children in other Western countries, Finnish children may also be in danger of losing their direct contact with the natural environment. It was common to pass free time in organized sports such as hockey or football (boys), or by just walking and talking with friends (girls). Rural children told that they still built huts, pick berries, and climb trees, whereas urban children played in parks and city groves. The results suggest that it is essential to research
further the children’s own experiences if we are to understand, and subsequently, to enhance, the crucial role of the green environment in their lives. Horticultural interventions can be effective starting points to add to children’s knowledge, affection, and interest toward greenery, but it is highly recommended that they take place outdoors rather than indoors.

Children’s Relationship to Plants among Primary School Children in Finland

There is considerable evidence that children in modern society are losing
their contact with nature and, more precisely, with green plants. Is this also the case in Finland, a northern country famous for its forests and wild nature? This study examines the relationship of 9- to 10-year-old Finnish schoolchildren with the green environment and plants. The data were gathered by a questionnaire
comprising structured and open-ended questions. The focus of the research was on two comparisons: first, on the nature and child relationship in rural and urban neighborhoods and, second, among boys and girls. Participants in the study amounted to a total of 76 children, 42 in the Helsinki suburb area and 34 in Paltamo. The results suggested that the children in rural surroundings had closer contact with nature than their urban associates. For example, the children of Paltamo reported to know the trees better, and considered human beings to be part of nature more often (100% vs. 76% of the pupils in Helsinki, P = 0,003). Similarly, the results showed that girls in the study (N = 48) were more interested in plants than boys (N = 28). For the girls, the beauty and joy of plants was important, whereas the boys appreciated plants as the source of life. After the pre-questioning, the children of Helsinki participated in an in-class horticultural intervention and 10 days later, answered a similar questionnaire again. The results of the open-ended questions revealed that equally to children in other Western countries, Finnish children may also be in danger of losing their direct contact with the natural environment. It was common to pass free time in organized sports such as hockey or football (boys), or by just walking and talking with friends (girls). Rural children told that they still built huts, pick berries, and climb trees, whereas urban children played in parks and city groves. The results suggest that it is essential to research
further the children’s own experiences if we are to understand, and subsequently, to enhance, the crucial role of the green environment in their lives. Horticultural interventions can be effective starting points to add to children’s knowledge, affection, and interest toward greenery, but it is highly recommended that they take place outdoors rather than indoors.

Canopy processes, fluxes and microclimate in a pine forest

Interaction between forests and the atmosphere occurs by radiative and turbulent transport. The fluxes of energy and mass between surface and the atmosphere directly influence the properties of the lower atmosphere and in longer time scales the global climate. Boreal forest ecosystems are central in the global climate system, and its responses to human activities, because they are significant sources and sinks of greenhouse gases and of aerosol particles. The aim of the present work was to improve our understanding on the existing interplay between biologically active canopy, microenvironment and turbulent flow and quantify. In specific, the aim was to quantify the contribution of different canopy layers to whole forest fluxes. For this purpose, long-term micrometeorological and ecological measurements made in a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) forest at SMEAR II research station in Southern Finland were used. The properties of turbulent flow are strongly modified by the interaction between the canopy elements: momentum is efficiently absorbed in the upper layers of the canopy, mean wind speed and turbulence intensities decrease rapidly towards the forest floor and power spectra is modulated by spectral short-cut . In the relative open forest, diabatic stability above the canopy explained much of the changes in velocity statistics within the canopy except in strongly stable stratification. Large eddies, ranging from tens to hundred meters in size, were responsible for the major fraction of turbulent transport between a forest and the atmosphere. Because of this, the eddy-covariance (EC) method proved to be successful for measuring energy and mass exchange inside a forest canopy with exception of strongly stable conditions. Vertical variations of within canopy microclimate, light attenuation in particular, affect strongly the assimilation and transpiration rates. According to model simulations, assimilation rate decreases with height more rapidly than stomatal conductance (gs) and transpiration and, consequently, the vertical source-sink distributions for carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O) diverge. Upscaling from a shoot scale to canopy scale was found to be sensitive to chosen stomatal control description. The upscaled canopy level CO2 fluxes can vary as much as 15 % and H2O fluxes 30 % even if the gs models are calibrated against same leaf-level dataset. A pine forest has distinct overstory and understory layers, which both contribute significantly to canopy scale fluxes. The forest floor vegetation and soil accounted between 18 and 25 % of evapotranspiration and between 10 and 20 % of sensible heat exchange. Forest floor was also an important deposition surface for aerosol particles; between 10 and 35 % of dry deposition of particles within size range 10 30 nm occurred there. Because of the northern latitudes, seasonal cycle of climatic factors strongly influence the surface fluxes. Besides the seasonal constraints, partitioning of available energy to sensible and latent heat depends, through stomatal control, on the physiological state of the vegetation. In spring, available energy is consumed mainly as sensible heat and latent heat flux peaked about two months later, in July August. On the other hand, annual evapotranspiration remains rather stable over range of environmental conditions and thus any increase of accumulated radiation affects primarily the sensible heat exchange. Finally, autumn temperature had strong effect on ecosystem respiration but its influence on photosynthetic CO2 uptake was restricted by low radiation levels. Therefore, the projected autumn warming in the coming decades will presumably reduce the positive effects of earlier spring recovery in terms of carbon uptake potential of boreal forests.

Männyn neulaskadon arviointi laserkeilauksella

Leaf and needle biomasses are key factors in forest health. Insects that feed on needles cause growth losses and tree mortality. Insect outbreaks in Finnish forests have increased rapidly during the last decade and due to climate change the damages are expected to become more serious. There is a need for cost-efficient methods for inventorying these outbreaks. Remote sensing is a promising means for estimating forests and damages. The purpose of this study is to investigate the usability of airborne laser scanning in estimating Scots pine defoliation caused by the common pine sawfly (Diprion pini L.). The study area is situated in Ilomantsi district, eastern Finland. Study materials included high-pulse airborne laser scannings from July and October 2008. Reference data consisted of 90 circular field plots measured in May-June 2009. Defoliation percentage on these field plots was estimated visually. The study was made on plot-level and methods used were linear regression, unsupervised classification, Maximum likelihood method, and stepwise linear regression. Field plots were divided in defoliation classes in two different ways: When divided in two classes the defoliation percentages used were 0–20 % and 20–100 % and when divided in four classes 0–10 %, 10–20 %, 20–30 % and 30–100 %. The results varied depending on method and laser scanning. In the first laser scanning the best results were obtained with stepwise linear regression. The kappa value was 0,47 when using two classes and 0,37 when divided in four classes. In the second laser scanning the best results were obtained with Maximum likelihood. The kappa values were 0,42 and 0,37, correspondingly. The feature that explained defoliation best was vegetation index (pulses reflected from height > 2m / all pulses). There was no significant difference in the results between the two laser scannings so the seasonal change in defoliation could not be detected in this study.

Global and EU governance for sustainable forest management with special reference to capacity building in Ethiopia and Southern Sudan

The purpose of this study was to produce information on and practical recommendations for informed decision-making on and capacity building for sustainable forest management (SFM) and good forest governance. This was done within the overall global framework for sustainable development with special emphasis on the EU and African frameworks and on Southern Sudan and Ethiopia in particular. The case studies on Southern Sudan and Ethiopia focused on local, national and regional issues. Moreover, this study attempted to provide both theoretical and practical new insight. The aim was to build an overall theoretical framework and to study its key contents and main implications for SFM and good forest governance at all administration levels, for providing new tools for capacity building in natural resources management. The theoretical framework and research approach were based on the original research problem and the general and specific aims of the study. The key elements of the framework encompass sustainable development, global and EU governance, sustainable forest management (SFM), good forest governance, as well as international and EU law. The selected research approach comprised matrix-based assessment of international, regional (EU and Africa) and national (Southern Sudan and Ethiopia) policy and legal documents. The specific case study on Southern Sudan also involved interviews and group discussions with local community members and government officials. As a whole, this study attempted to link the global, regional, national and local levels in forest-sector development and especially to analyse how the international policy development in environmental and forestry issues is reflected in field-level progress towards SFM and good forest governance, for the specific cases of Southern Sudan and Ethiopia. The results on Southern Sudan focused on the existing situation and perceived needs in capacity building for SFM and good forest governance at all administration levels. Specifically, the results of the case study on Southern Sudan presented the current situation in selected villages in the northern parts of Renk County in Upper Nile State, and the implications of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) and of the new forest policy framework for capacity building actions. The results on Ethiopia focused on training, extension, research, education and new curriculum development within higher education institutions and particularly at the Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources (WGCF-NR), which administratively lies under Hawassa University. The results suggest that, for both cases studies, informed decision-making on and capacity building for SFM and good forest governance require comprehensive, long-term, cross-sectoral, coherent and consistent approaches within the dynamic and evolving overall global framework, including its multiple inter-linked levels. The specific priority development and focus areas comprised the establishment of SFM and good forest governance in accordance with the overall sustainable development priorities and with more focus on the international trade in forest products that are derived from sustainable and legal sources with an emphasis on effective forest law enforcement and governance at all levels. In Upper Nile State in Southern Sudan there were positive development signals such as the will of the local people to plant more multipurpose trees on farmlands and range lands as well as the recognition of the importance of forests and trees for sustainable rural development where food security is a key element. In addition, it was evident that the local communities studied in Southern Sudan also wanted to establish good governance systems through partnerships with all actors and through increased local responsibilities. The results also suggest that the implementation of MEAs at the local level in Southern Sudan requires mutually supportive and coherent approaches within the agreements as well as significantly more resources and financial and technical assistance for capacity building, training and extension. Finally, the findings confirm the importance of full utilization of the existing local governance and management systems and their traditional and customary knowledge and practices, and of new development partnerships with full participation of all stakeholders. The planned new forest law for Southern Sudan, based on an already existing new forest policy, is expected to recognize the roles of local-level actors, and it would thus obviously facilitate the achieving of sustainable forest management.

Agricultural expansion and climate change in the Taita Hills, Kenya: an assessment of potential environmental impacts

The indigenous cloud forests in the Taita Hills have suffered substantial degradation for several centuries due to agricultural expansion. Currently, only 1% of the original forested area remains preserved in this region. Furthermore, climate change imposes an imminent threat for local economy and environmental sustainability. In such circumstances, elaborating tools to conciliate socioeconomic growth and natural resources conservation is an enormous challenge. This dissertation tackles essential aspects for understanding the ongoing agricultural activities in the Taita Hills and their potential environmental consequences in the future. Initially, alternative methods were designed to improve our understanding of the ongoing agricultural activities. Namely, methods for agricultural survey planning and to estimate evapotranspiration were evaluated, taking into account a number of limitations regarding data and resources availability. Next, this dissertation evaluates how upcoming agricultural expansion, together with climate change, will affect the natural resources in the Taita Hills up to the year 2030. The driving forces of agricultural expansion in the region were identified as aiming to delineate future landscape scenarios and evaluate potential impacts from the soil and water conservation point of view. In order to investigate these issues and answer the research questions, this dissertation combined state of the art modelling tools with renowned statistical methods. The results indicate that, if current trends persist, agricultural areas will occupy roughly 60% of the study area by 2030. Although the simulated land use changes will certainly increase soil erosion figures, new croplands are likely to come up predominantly in the lowlands, which comprise areas with lower soil erosion potential. By 2030, rainfall erosivity is likely to increase during April and November due to climate change. Finally, this thesis addressed the potential impacts of agricultural expansion and climate changes on Irrigation Water Requirements (IWR), which is considered another major issue in the context of the relations between land use and climate. Although the simulations indicate that climate change will likely increase annual volumes of rainfall during the following decades, IWR will continue to increase due to agricultural expansion. By 2030, new cropland areas may cause an increase of approximately 40% in the annual volume of water necessary for irrigation.

Disjunct eddy covariance measurements of volatile organic compound fluxes using proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted into the atmosphere from natural and anthropogenic sources, vegetation being the dominant source on a global scale. Some of these reactive compounds are deemed major contributors or inhibitors to aerosol particle formation and growth, thus making VOC measurements essential for current climate change research. This thesis discusses ecosystem scale VOC fluxes measured above a boreal Scots pine dominated forest in southern Finland. The flux measurements were performed using the micrometeorological disjunct eddy covariance (DEC) method combined with proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS), which is an online technique for measuring VOC concentrations. The measurement, calibration, and calculation procedures developed in this work proved to be well suited to long-term VOC concentration and flux measurements with PTR-MS. A new averaging approach based on running averaged covariance functions improved the determination of the lag time between wind and concentration measurements, which is a common challenge in DEC when measuring fluxes near the detection limit. The ecosystem scale emissions of methanol, acetaldehyde, and acetone were substantial. These three oxygenated VOCs made up about half of the total emissions, with the rest comprised of monoterpenes. Contrary to the traditional assumption that monoterpene emissions from Scots pine originate mainly as evaporation from specialized storage pools, the DEC measurements indicated a significant contribution from de novo biosynthesis to the ecosystem scale monoterpene emissions. This thesis offers practical guidelines for long-term DEC measurements with PTR-MS. In particular, the new averaging approach to the lag time determination seems useful in the automation of DEC flux calculations. Seasonal variation in the monoterpene biosynthesis and the detailed structure of a revised hybrid algorithm, describing both de novo and pool emissions, should be determined in further studies to improve biological realism in the modelling of monoterpene emissions from Scots pine forests. The increasing number of DEC measurements of oxygenated VOCs will probably enable better estimates of the role of these compounds in plant physiology and tropospheric chemistry. Keywords: disjunct eddy covariance, lag time determination, long-term flux measurements, proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry, Scots pine forests, volatile organic compounds

Road kills of amphibians in different land use areas from Sharavathi river basin, central Western Ghats, India

A survey of amphibian mortality on roads was carried out in the Sharavathi river basin in the central Western Ghats. Road kills in three different land use areas: agricultural fields, water bodies and forests were recorded for four days along three 100m stretches in each type of area. One-hundred-and-forty-four individuals belonging to two orders, eight families, 11 genera and 13 species were recorded in the survey. Kills/km observed were: in forest 55, agricultural fields 38 and water bodies 27, for an overall average of 40 kills/km. Kill species compositions varied significantly between land use areas, but not overall kill rates.

Hiekkatympösen (Hebeloma cylindrosporum) L-aminohappo-oksidaasi -geenin eristäminen

Pohjoisella havumetsävyöhykkeellä typpi on usein kasvien kasvua rajoittava tekijä. Metsämaan typpivarannot koostuvat pääasiassa orgaaniseen ainekseen sitoutuneista typpiyhdisteistä, erityisesti aminohapoista. Ektomykorritsasienet osallistuvat metsämaassa tapahtuvaan typenkiertoon hajottamalla orgaanisia typpiyhdisteitä ja kuljettamalla niitä kasvien käytettäväksi. Sienisolun sisällä tapahtuvasta aminohappojen mineralisaatiosta tiedetään toistaiseksi melko vähän. Aminohappo-oksidaasit katalysoivat aminohappojen mineralisaatiota. Eräissä ektomykorritsaa muodostavien kantasienten suvuissa on osoitettu L-aminohappo-oksidaaseja (LAO). Toistaiseksi LAO-geeniä ei tunneta kantasienistä. Työssä kuvattiin ensimmäistä kertaa LAO-geeni kantasienistä. Hiekkatympösen LAO1- geenin cDNA:n 5´ ja 3´ päiden emäsjärjestykset määritettiin RACE-PCR -menetelmällä, josta saatujen sekvenssien perusteella suunniteltiin alukkeet koko geenin cDNA:n ja genomisen DNA:n monistamiseksi. Genomisen DNA ja cDNA -sekvenssien perusteella määritettiin hiekkatympösen LAO1-geenin rakenne. Hiekkatympösen LAO1-geeni koostuu viidestä eksonista ja neljästä intronista. Hiekkatympösen LAO1-geenin yläpuoliselta alueelta löydettiin typpimetabolian säätelyyn osallistuvan proteiinin sitoutumiskohta. LAO1-geeniä edeltävä geenin osittainen genominen DNA-sekvenssi määritettiin. Kangaslohisienen genomissa LAO1-geeniä edeltävä geeni oli ennustettu pyruvaattidekarboksylaasiksi. Lisäksi työssä määritettiin hiekkatympösen toisen LAOhomologin cDNA:n osittainen emäsjärjestys. Työssä tunnistettiin myös toisen kantasienen, kangaslohisienen, LAO-geeni. LAO-geeniksi tunnistettu kangaslohisienen geenimalli oli aiemmin ennustettu NCBI:n tietokannassa toiminnaltaan tuntemattomaksi proteiiniksi. Proteiinien sukupuun perusteella hiekkatympösen ja kangaslohisienen LAO:n kantamuoto on kahdentunut. Työstä saatu tutkimustulos tuo täysin uutta tietoa molekyylibiologian tasolla ektomykorritsasienten aminohappojen katabolisista reaktioista. Aminohappojen mineralisaation seurauksen muodostuneet ammoniumionit saattavat olla merkittävä typen lähde myös maan muille mikrobeille ja kasveille. On mahdollista, että ektomykorritsasienten LAO-entsyymi on yksi merkittävä tekijä metsämaan typenkierrossa.

Decision support requirements for intelligent operation of southern grid in India

Control centers (CC) play a very important role in power system operation. An overall view of the system with information about all existing resources and needs is implemented through SCADA (Supervisory control and data acquisition system) and an EMS (energy management system). As advanced technologies have made their way into the utility environment, the operators are flooded with huge amount of data. The last decade has seen extensive applications of AI techniques, knowledge-based systems, Artificial Neural Networks in this area. This paper focuses on the need for development of an intelligent decision support system to assist the operator in making proper decisions. The requirements for realization of such a system are recognized for the effective operation and energy management of the southern grid in India The application of Petri nets leading to decision support system has been illustrated considering 24 bus system that is a part of southern grid.

Ecology of the Asian Elephant in Southern India. I. Movement and Habitat Utilization Patterns

The movement and habitat utilization patterns were studied in an Asian elephant population during 1981-83 within a 1130 km2 area in southern India (110 30' N to 120 0' N and 760 50' E to 770 15' E). The study area encompasses a diversity of vegetation types from dry thorn forest (250-400 m) through deciduous forest (400-1400 m) to stunted evergreen shola forest and grassland (1400-1800 m). Home range sizes of some identified elephants were between 105 and 320 km2. Based on the dry season distribution, five different elephant clans, each consisting of between 50 and 200 individuals and having overlapping home ranges, could be defined within the study area. Seaso- nal habitat preferences were related to the availability of water and the palatability of food plants. During the dry months (January-April) elephants congregated at high densities of up to five individuals kM-2 in river valleys where browse plants had a much higher protein content than the coarse tall grasses on hill slopes. With the onset of rains of the first wet season (May- August) they dispersed over a wider area at lower densities, largely into the tall grass forests, to feed on the fresh grasses, which then had a high protein value. During the second wet season (September-December), when the tall grasses became fibrous, they moved into lower elevation short grass open forests. The normal movement pattern could be upset during years of adverse environmental con- ditions. However, the movement pattern of elephants in this region has not basically changed for over a century, as inferred from descriptions recorded during the nineteenth century.