Immune responses of the scallop Chlamys farreri after air exposure to different temperatures

The present study examined the influence of air exposure at different temperatures: a common perturbation associated with aquaculture handling practices, on immune responses in zhikong scallop Chlamys farreri. Scallops were exposed to air for 2 h, 6 h, 12 h and 24 h at 5 degrees C, 17 degrees C and 25 degrees C respectively. Thereafter, a recovery period of 24 h at 17 degrees C was applied. Haemocyte mortality, phagocytosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production of haemocytes, acid phosphatase (ACP) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in haemocyte lysates were chosen as immumomarkers of anoxic stress. The results showed that an increase of haemocyte mortality and a decrease of phagocytosis and ACP activity were observed after 2 h of air exposure for all temperatures tested. Moreover, a significant increase of ROS production occurred following 2 h of air exposure at 25 degrees C and 24 h of air exposure at 17 degrees C. Significant differences were also observed in haemocyte mortality, percentage of phagocytic cells and ACP and SOD activity depending on the temperature of air exposure. Finally, after 24 h of recovery at 17 degrees C, percentage of phagocytic haemocytes and ACP activity did not return to initial values. ROS production was significantly higher than before the recovery period and initial values for scallops subjected to air exposure at 5 degrees C. In our study, scallops showed a relative low anoxia tolerance under a high temperature. All the scallops air exposed to 25 degrees C died after the 6 h sampling. In conclusion, air exposure associated to aquaculture practices was demonstrated to strongly affect functional immune activities of scallop haemocytes, and high temperature air exposure caused reduced survival of scallops. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Responses of a coastal phytoplankton community to increased nutrient input from the Changjiang (Yangtze) River

Nutrient input from the Changjiang River (Yangtze River) has been increasing dramatically since the 1960s. At the mouth of the Changjiang River, the nitrate concentration has increased about three-fold in 40 years, from 20.5 mu mol/L in the 1960s to 59.1 mu mol/L in the 1980s and to 80.6 mu mol/L in 1990-2004. Phosphate concentration increased by a factor of 30%, from 0.59 mu mol/L in the 1980s to 0.77 mu mol/L in 1990-2004. The increasing nitrate input has arisen mostly from the mid and lower reaches of the Changjiang River, where the river meets one of the most strongly developed agriculture areas in China. Responses of the coastal phytoplankton community to the increasing nutrient inputs are also seen in the available monitoring data. First, a trend of increasing phytoplankton standing stock from 1984 to 2002 appeared in the Changjiang River estuary and adjacent coastal waters, especially in late spring. Secondly, the proportion of diatoms in the whole phytoplankton community showed a decreasing trend from about 85% in 1984 to about 60% in 2000. Finally, red tides/harmful algal blooms increased dramatically in this area in terms of both number and scale. About 30-80 red tide events were recorded each year from 2000 to 2005 in the East China Sea. The scale of some blooms has been in excess of 10,000 km(2). (c) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Concentrations of Cadmium and Zinc in Seawater of Bohai Bay and Their Effects on Biomarker Responses in the Bivalve Chlamys farreri

Both in-field chemical investigation and in the laboratory toxic tests were carried out to systematically understand the pollution status of cadmium (Cd) and zinc (Zn) in Bohai Bay. Samples collected from surface seawater were determined to describe the distributions of Cd and Zn in Bohai Bay. The average values in our study of Cd and Zn were 0.15 mu g/L and 19.68 mu g/L, respectively. Both of them were lower than the first class limit of seawater quality standard in China. In the laboratory, antioxidant enzymes [SOD (Cu/Zn-SOD, Mn-SOD), CAT], lipid peroxidation (MDA), phase I and phase II enzymes (CYP4501A and GST) were investigated in the bivalves Chlamys farreri exposed to Cd and Zn at the concentration levels of Bohai Bay seawater, which were obtained from our in-field investigation. The reduced SOD, CAT, and EROD (7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase) activities (with the inhibitory rate of 16.8%, 31.5%, and 51.6%, respectively) in Cd treatment were observed and resulted in obvious lipid peroxidation damage. However, treatment of Zn showed elevations in SOD and GST by 13.3% and 29.9%, respectively, and with no influence on lipid peroxidation. In summary, seawater quality in Bohai Bay seawater was ranked as good in general, but it seemed that Cd might possess a potential environmental risk by effecting pro-oxidant/antioxidant balance and phase I detoxification in C. farreri.

Nutrient structure of seawater and ecological responses in Jiaozhou Bay, China

Nutrient concentrations in seawater, and C, N, P, Si and chlorophyll a content in different-sized particulates were measured in Jiaozhou Bay, and C, N, P, Si composition in different-sized fractions of phytoplankton and their ecological responses to nutrient structure of the seawater were studied. Microphytoplankton and nanophytoplankton were dominant in Jiaozhou Bay. High C (16.50-20.97 unol L-1), N (2.46-2.99 mu mol L-1) and low P (0.06-0.12 mu mol L-1), Si (0.18-0.57 mu mol L-1) content, and high N/P (24.7-64.6) and low SUP (4.4-10.8), Si/N (0.06-0.20) ratios were found in all sized groups of particulates. These values reflected the elemental compositions of different-sized fractions of phytoplankton as being an ecological response to the nutrients in the seawater. The ratios deviated significantly from the Redfield values. The nutrient composition of seawater and particulates and their relationship to chlorophyll a showed that phytoplankton growth was possibly limited by Si. Si limitation appears favorable for controlling the ecological equilibrium of Jiaozhou Bay. Different-sized fractions of phytoplankton had different suitability to nutrient structures of the seawater. Among phytoplankton size groups, nanophytoplankton and microphytoplankton growths were more adaptable in eutrophic Jiaozhou Bay, and more competitive for assimilation of Si. This is consistent with their diatom-dominated composition, controlling the biomass and productivity of phytoplankton in Jiaozhou Bay. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Behavioral responses of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) to acute fluctuations in dissolved oxygen levels as monitored by computer vision

Behavioral and ventilatory parameters have the possibility of predicting the stress state of fish in vivo and in situ. This paper presents a new image-processing algorithm for quantifying the average swimming speed of a fish school in an aquarium. This method is based on the alteration in projected area caused by the movement of individual fish during frame sequences captured at given time intervals. The image enhancement method increases the contrast between fish and background, and is thus suitable for use in turbid aquaculture water. Behavioral parameters (swimming activity and distribution parameters) and changes in ventilation frequency (VF) of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) responded to acute fluctuations in dissolved oxygen (DO) which were monitored continuously in the course of normoxia, falling DO level, maintenance of hypoxia (three levels of 1.5, 0.8 and 0.3 mg l(-1)) and subsequent recovery to normoxia. These parameters responded sensitively to acute variations in DO level; they displayed significant changes (P < 0.05) during severe hypoxia (0.8 and 0.3 mg l(-1) level) compared with normoxic condition, but there was no significant difference under conditions of mild hypoxia (1.5 mg l(-1) level). There was no significant difference in VF between two levels of severe hypoxia 0.8 and 0.3 mg l(-1) level during the low DO condition. The activity and distribution parameters displayed distinguishable differences between the 0.8 and 0.3 mg l(-1) levels. The behavioral parameters are thus capable of distinguishing between different degrees of severe hypoxia, though there were relatively large fluctuations. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Production of a base population and its responses to F-1 selection in the bay scallop, Argopecten irradians irradians Lamarck (1819)

A base population of the bay scallop, Argopecten irradians irradians Lamarck, was produced by crossing two cultured bay scallop populations. After 1 year of rearing, the top 10% truncation selection of the top 10% (i=1.755) was carried out in the base population of about 1300 adults. A control parental group with a an identical number to the select parental group was randomly selected from the entire population before isolation of the select parental group. The result showed that, at the larval stage, the growth rate of larvae in the selected line was significantly higher than that of the control (P < 0.05), and that the genetic gain was 6.78%. Owing to the lower density of control at the spat stage, the mean shell length of the control line was larger than that of the select line at day 100. When the same density was adjusted between two lines in the grow-out stage (from day 100 to 160), the daily growth rate of the selected line was significantly higher than that of the control line (P < 0.05). Survival of the select line was significantly larger than that of the control line in the grow-out stage. In conclusion, the results obtained from this experiment indicate that selective breeding from a base population with a high genetic diversity established by mass spawning between different populations appears to be a promising method of genetic improvement in bay scallop, A. irradians irradians Lamarck.

Different responses to selection in two stocks of the bay scallop, Argopecten irradians irradians Lamarck (1819)

Two different stocks (A and B) of the bay scallop Argopecten irradialls irradians (Lamarck, 1819) were used to test mass selection on growth. Stock A was a descending stock from the initial introduction from U.S.A. in 1982, which had been cultured in China for about 20 years. Stock B was the third generation from a recent introduction from U.S.A. in 1999. Truncation selection was conducted by selecting the largest 11% scallops in shell length from Stock A and the largest 12.7% scallops from Stock B as parents for the respective selected groups. Before the removal of parents for truncation selection, equal numbers of scallops were randomly chosen from Stock A and B to serve as parents for the control groups. Offspring from the four groups were reared under the same hatchery, nursery, and grow-out conditions. Values of response to selection and realized heritability at larvae, spat and grow-out stages for Stock B were all significantly (P < 0.001) higher than its counterpart for Stock A. For Stock A, no significant response to selection was observed (P > 0.05) at any stage, and the realized heritability for shell length was 0.015 +/- 0.024 for larvae, 0.040 +/- 0.027 for spat, and 0.080 +/- 0.009 for grow-out, respectively. For Stock B, however, significant (P < 0.05) response to selection was observed, and the realized heritability for shell length was 0.511 +/- 0.010 for larvae, 0.341 +/- 0.022 for spat, and 0.338 +/- 0.015 for grow-out. On average, responses to selection at the three stages for Stock B was 30 x, 7.1 x, and 3 x higher than its counterpart for Stock A, respectively. Accordingly, realized heritability at above stages for Stock B was 33 X, 7.5 x, and 3.2 X higher than its counterpart for Stock A, respectively. Differences in response to selection and realized heritability between the two stocks are presumably due to differences in genetic variability. As the 20th generation from the initial introduction consisted of only 26 scallops, Stock A is known to be highly inbred, while inbreeding in Stock B is negligible. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Vegetation Responses to A Long-term Grazing Intensity Experiment in Alpine Shrub Grassland on Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

在青藏高原中国科学院海北高寒草甸生态系统定位研究站对金露梅高寒灌丛草场植被开展了长期不同放 牧强度试验,分别在短期(4 年) 、中期(11 年) 和长期(18 年) 放牧阶段研究不同放牧干扰强度对草地植物物种多样 性、群落结构、地上生物量和草场质量的影响。研究表明,在不同放牧阶段,随着放牧强度增加植物群落的高度和 盖度都降低。在中期放牧干扰阶段,物种多样性指数和均匀度指数随着放牧强度增加呈现典型的单峰曲线模式; 在长期放牧干扰阶段,随着放牧强度增加,占优势地位的灌木和禾草被典型杂类草替代,其中的重度放牧干扰简化 了高寒灌丛植被群落结构,减少了地上现存生物量,特别是可食优良牧草生物量。植被对放牧的响应除了与放牧 强度和放牧时间阶段密切相关外,还与该地区水热条件的变化有一定的相关性。针对长期放牧干扰的反应特性可 将金露梅灌丛草场中植物划分为增加型、敏感型、忍耐型和无反应型4 种类型。除了丰富度指数、多样性指数和均 匀度指数外,其它一些特征参数并不支持著名的中度干扰假说。本研究发现,长期重度放牧促进了青藏高原高寒 草地退化,适度放牧有利于高寒灌丛草场的生物多样性保护和牧草利用;“取半留半”的放牧原则在青藏高原草场 放牧管理实践中值得推荐,它将有利于防止草场退化,提高牧草利用率和维持较高的生物多样性。

Behavioural responses by yaks in different physiological states (lactating, dry or replacement heifers), when grazing natural pasture in the spring (dry and germinating) season on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau

Using heterogeneous vegetation in alpine grassland through grazing is a necessary component of deintensification of livestock systems and conservation of natural environments. However, better understanding of the dynamics of animal feeding behaviour would improve pasture and livestock grazing managements, particularly in the early part of the spring season when forage is scarce. The changes in behaviour may improve the use of poor pastures. Then, enhancing management practices may conserve pasture and improve animal productivity. Grazing behaviour over 24 In periods by yaks in different physiological states (lactating, dry and replacement heifers) was recorded in the early, dry and later, germinating period of the spring season. Under conditions of inadequate forage, the physiological state of yaks was not the primary factor affecting their grazing and ruminating behaviour. Forage and sward state affected yaks' grazing and ruminating behaviour to a greater extent. Generally, yaks had higher intake and spent more time grazing and ruminating during the later part of the spring season, following germination of forage, than during the earlier dry part of the season. However, the live weight of yaks was less during pasture germination than during the early dry part of the season because the herbage mass is low, and the yaks have to expend much energy to seek feed at this particular time. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Population dynamics and responses to management of plateau pikas Ochotona curzoniae

1. Plateau pikas Ochotona curzoniae are considered a pest species on the Tibetan Plateau because they compete with livestock for forage and their burrowing could contribute to soil erosion. The effectiveness of pest control programmes in Tibet has not been measured, and it is not known whether changes in livestock management have exacerbated problems with plateau pikas or compromised their control. This study measured the impact of control programmes and livestock management for forage conservation on populations of plateau pikas in alpine meadow in Naqu District, central Tibet, during 2004 and 2005.2. Current techniques for controlling plateau pikas in spring cause large reductions in abundance, but high density-dependent rates of increase result in no differences between treated and untreated populations by the following autumn. Rates of increase from spring to autumn are not influenced by standing plant biomass or concurrent grazing by yaks Bos grunniens and Tibetan sheep Ovis aries.3. In autumn there was significantly lower biomass outside fenced areas with year-round livestock grazing compared with inside fenced areas with equivalent or higher numbers of plateau pikas but predominantly winter grazing by livestock. Inside fenced areas, control of plateau pikas in spring produced no detectable effect on standing plant biomass at the end of the following summer compared with uncontrolled populations of plateau pikas.4. Regardless of their initial density, populations of plateau pikas declined rapidly over winter outside fenced areas where there was very low standing plant biomass in autumn. However, inside fenced areas with higher plant biomass in autumn, low-density populations of plateau pikas declined more slowly than high-density populations.5. Synthesis and applications. Current control programmes have limited effect because populations of plateau pikas can recover in one breeding season. There was no apparent increase in forage production in areas where plateau pikas were controlled. However, plateau pikas appear to benefit from changes in grazing management, with low-density populations declining less over winter inside fenced areas than elsewhere. It was not evident that control programmes are warranted or that they will improve the livelihoods of Tibetan herders.

Global negative vegetation feedback to climate warming responses of leaf litter decomposition rates in cold biomes

Whether climate change will turn cold biomes from large long-term carbon sinks into sources is hotly debated because of the great potential for ecosystem-mediated feedbacks to global climate. Critical are the direction, magnitude and generality of climate responses of plant litter decomposition. Here, we present the first quantitative analysis of the major climate-change-related drivers of litter decomposition rates in cold northern biomes worldwide. Leaf litters collected from the predominant species in 33 global change manipulation experiments in circum-arctic-alpine ecosystems were incubated simultaneously in two contrasting arctic life zones. We demonstrate that longer-term, large-scale changes to leaf litter decomposition will be driven primarily by both direct warming effects and concomitant shifts in plant growth form composition, with a much smaller role for changes in litter quality within species. Specifically, the ongoing warming-induced expansion of shrubs with recalcitrant leaf litter across cold biomes would constitute a negative feedback to global warming. Depending on the strength of other (previously reported) positive feedbacks of shrub expansion on soil carbon turnover, this may partly counteract direct warming enhancement of litter decomposition.

Responses of Artemisia frigida Willd. (Compositae) and Leymus chinensis (Trin.) Tzvel. (Poaceae) to sheep saliva

Although studies show that grazing and browsing by herbivores have marked effects on host plants, the mechanisms remain unclear. The objective of this study is to determine the effects of sheep saliva on host plant growth. Sheep saliva was manually applied to clipped plants of two different life forms, a semi-shrub, Artemisia frigida Willd., and a herbaceous species, Leymus chinensis (Trin.) Tzevel. The results showed that sheep saliva significantly enhanced aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) and the ratio of ANPP to belowground net primary productivity (BNPP) for both species. This indicated that sheep saliva promotes aboveground compensatory growth and allocation of photosynthate to aboveground for both plant species. Sheep saliva stimulated only tillering of L. chinensis. Regardless of saliva application, clipping significantly decreased BNPP and plant height, but significantly increased the number of branches or tillers for both plant species. The relative growth rates (RGRs) on both species were significantly greater after clipping with saliva compared with control and clipping without saliva treatments. In addition, RGR of the herbaceous species L. chinensis was faster than that of the semi-shrub A. frigida after application of saliva. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Dynamic and complex microclimate responses to warming and grazing manipulations

Synthesis efforts that identify patterns of ecosystem response to a suite of warming manipulations can make important contributions to climate change science. However, cross-study comparisons are impeded by the paucity of detailed analyses of how passive warming and other manipulations affect microclimate. Here we document the independent and combined effects of a common passive warming manipulation, open-top chambers (OTCs), and a simulated widespread land use, clipping, on microclimate on the Tibetan Plateau. OTCs consistently elevated growing season averaged mean daily air temperature by 1.0-2.0 degrees C, maximum daily air temperature by 2.1-7.3 degrees C and the diurnal air temperature range by 1.9-6.5 degrees C, with mixed effects on minimum daily air temperature, and mean daily soil temperature and moisture. These OTC effects on microclimate differ from reported effects of a common active warming method, infrared heating, which has more consistent effects on soil than on air temperature. There were significant interannual and intragrowing season differences in OTC effects on microclimate. For example, while OTCs had mixed effects on growing season averaged soil temperatures, OTCs consistently elevated soil temperature by approximately 1.0 degrees C early in the growing season. Nonadditive interactions between OTCs and clipping were also present: OTCs in clipped plots generally elevated air and soil temperatures more than OTCs in nonclipped plots. Moreover, site factors dynamically interacted with microclimate and with the efficacy of the OTC manipulations.These findings highlight the need to understand differential microclimate effects between warming methods, within warming method across ecosystem sites, within warming method crossed with other treatments, and within sites over various timescales. Methods, sites and scales are potential explanatory variables and covariables in climate warming experiments. Consideration of this variability among and between experimental warming studies will lead to greater understanding and better prediction of ecosystem response to anthropogenic climate warming.