Community pharmacists’ understanding, attitudes, practice and perceived barriers related to providing pharmaceutical care: a questionnaire-based survey in Macao

Purpose: To explore the knowledge, attitudes, practice and perceived barriers of community pharmacists regarding provision of pharmaceutical care as well as provide recommendations on how to advance the service during the early stage of development in Macao. Methods: A questionnaire comprising 10 items was used to collect respondents’ demographic information and to evaluate their understanding of pharmaceutical care, attitude towards service provision, current practice and perceived barriers. Descriptive and comparative analysis of the results was conducted. Results: While 95 % of the participating pharmacists agreed that patients’ health was their primary responsibility, only 57 % believed that they can provide better pharmaceutical care in the future. The majority spent most of their work time counselling patients (90 %) and checking prescription (70 %). Only a small portion monitored adverse drug reaction and drug compliance (44 %), engaged in health screening or drug safety promotion (20 %) or maintained patient medication records (4 %). Insufficient communication with physicians (90 %), lack of time (79 %) and lack of physical space at the pharmacy (76 %) were considered the most significant barriers. Conclusion: A suboptimal level of pharmaceutical care is provided by pharmacists in Macao. Considering the barriers identified and integrating other country experiences, establishing an enabling atmosphere using policy and regulatory measures is the fundamental element for advancing pharmaceutical care by community pharmacists.

Bioequivalence evaluation of new microparticulate capsule and marketed tablet dosage forms of lornoxicam in healthy volunteers

Purpose: To compare oral bioavailability and pharmacokinetic parameters of different lornoxicam formulations and to assess similarity in plasma level profiles by statistical techniques. Methods: An open-label, two-period crossover trial was followed in 24 healthy Pakistani volunteers (22 males, 2 females). Each participant received a single dose of lornoxicam controlled release (CR) microparticles and two doses (morning and evening) of conventional lornoxicam immediate release (IR) tablet formulation. The microparticles were prepared by spray drying method. The formulations were administered again in an alternate manner after a washout period of one week. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined by Kinetica 4.0 software using plasma concentration-time data. Moreover, data were statistically analyzed at 90 % confidence interval (CI) and Schuirmann’s two one-sided t-test procedure. Results: Peak plasma concentration (Cmax) was 20.2 % lower for CR formulation compared to IR formulation (270.90 ng/ml vs 339.44 ng/ml, respectively) while time taken to attain Cmax (tmax) was 5.25 and 2.08 h, respectively. Area under the plasma drug level versus time (AUC) curve was comparable for both CR and IR formulations. The 90 % confidence interval (CI) values computed for Cmax, AUC0-24, and AUC0-∞ , after log transformation, were 87.21, 108.51 and 102.74 %, respectively, and were within predefined bioequivalence range (80 - 125 %). Conclusion: The findings suggest that CR formulation of lornoxicam did not change the overall pharmacokinetic properties of lornoxicam in terms of extent and rate of lornoxicam absorption.

Development of paclitaxel-loaded liposomal systems with anti-her2 antibody for targeted therapy

Purpose: To develop liposome formulations containing monoclonal antibody anti-HER2 (MabHer2), and Paclitaxel (PTX). Methods: Seven different liposomal systems containing PTX, or MabHer2 or a combination of PTX and MabHer2 were made using lipid film hydration technique and sonication. The effects of liposome preparation conditions and extraction methods on antibody structure were investigated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The characteristics of the liposomes were determined by a zetasizer, while drug-loading efficiency was evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography. The cytotoxic effect of the liposome formulations was evaluated on MDA-MB-453 (HER2+) and MCF-7 (HER2-) breast cancer cell lines by MTT assay. Results: The antibody was not significantly affected by the stress conditions and the method of extraction. The particle size of liposomes was < 200 nm while the amount of incorporated PTX was 97.6 % for liposome without cationic agent and 98.2 % for those with cationic agent. Recovery of MabHer2 was 94.38 % after extraction. Combined PTX/MabHer2 liposome was more toxic on HER2 overexpressing positive MDA-MB-453 cell line than PTX-loaded liposomes and MabHer2. MabHer2 and combined PTX/MabHer2 liposomes showed no toxic effects on HER2 overexpressing negative MCF-7 cells relative to cationic PTX-loaded liposomes. Conclusions: This results obtained show that PTX can be encapsulated successfully into liposoma systems and that owing to Her2 specific antibody, these systems can be delivered directly to the target cell.

Ziziphus mauritiana leaf extract emulsion for skin rejuvenation

Purpose: To formulate stable water in oil (W/O) emulsion containing hydroalcoholic crude extract of Ziziphus mauritiana leaves for skin rejuvenation. Methods: Placebo (base) without any plant extract and formulation with 4 % Ziziphus mauritiana extract were prepared by mixing. Samples of the emulsions were subjected to varying storage conditions, i.e., 8, 25, 40 oC and 40 oC + 75 % relative humidity for a period of 4 weeks to predict their stability. During this period, stability parameters, including liquefaction, phase separation, color, electrical conductivity, centrifugation and pH were monitored at specified time intervals. Skin rejuvenation was evaluated using 13 healthy human volunteers over a period of 8 weeks. During this period, various skin parameters such as erythema, melanin level, moisture content, elasticity and sebum content of the skin were evaluated at specified intervals. Results: Both the active formulation and placebo were stable in terms of liquifaction, phase separation and color at all the storage conditions of temperature and humidity. Active formulation showed statistically significant (p < 0.05) improvement in skin melanin as well as in skin moisture and sebum levels, whereas these properties were reduced or even absent in the placebo formulation (p > 0.05). Both active and placebo formulations changed skin elasticity and erythema significantly (p < 0.05). Conclusion: It is evident from the findings that the leaf extract of Ziziphus mauritiana possesses antiaging properties as well as exert skin lightening, moisturizing and viscoelastic effects on human skin.

Formulation and stability of topical water in oil emulsion containing corn silk extract

Purpose: To formulate the water in oil (W/O) emulsion of corn silk (CS) extract and to evaluate its stability at various storage conditions. Methods: Ethanol CS extract was prepared using maceration (cold) technique. A 4 % CS emulsion was prepared using varying concentrations of liquid paraffin, ABIL EM90 and water. The formulations were kept at 40 oC for 28 days and to screen out the less stable formulations. The remaining formulations were further stressed at 50 oC to choose the most stable formulation. The optimized formulation was evaluated for physical characteristics including phase separation, rheology and mean droplet size. The physical stability of the formulation was evaluated by monitoring these parameters over a period of 12 weeks at 8, 25, 40 and 40 oC, and 75 % RH. Results: The chosen formulation showed good resistance to phase separation on centrifugation under all storage conditions. Rheological behavior followed non-Newtonian pseudoplastic pattern at various storage conditions. Mean droplet size of freshly prepared formulation was 2.98 ± 1.32 µm and did not show significant (p < 0.05) changes at normal storage conditions (8 and 25 oC). Conclusion: The findings indicate that the developed CS extract W/O emulsion is stable and therefore may be suitable for topical use on skin as an antioxidant preparation.

Dissolution rate enhancement of repaglinide by solid dispersion

Purpose: To enhance the solubility and dissolution rate of the antidiabetic drug repaglinide by solid dispersion (SD) technique Method: The solid dispersion of repaglinide was prepared by solvent evaporation method using the hydrophilic carrier, polyethylene glycol 4000 (PEG 4000) in three drug:PEG 4000 ratios (1:1, 1:3, 1:5). For comparison, physical mixtures of repaglinide and PEG 4000 in the same ratios were also prepared. The formulations were characterized by Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), x-ray diffractometry (XRD) and differential scanning colorimetry (DSC). Phase solubility study of pure repaglinide, physical mixture and solid dispersion was performed in distilled water. Dissolution studies were carried out in pH 7.4 phosphate buffer. Results: DSC and XRD results indicate that repaglinide exists in amorphous form in solid dispersion. FT-IR analysis demonstrated the presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding between repaglinide and PEG 4000 in the solid dispersion. The solubility of pure repaglinide was enhanced from 22.5± 5.0 to 235.5± 5.0 µg/mL in distilled water at 37 0C. Rapid burst release (80 - 86 %) from the solid dispersion formulations was observed within 15 min. Conclusion: The solubility and dissolution rate of repaglinide are enhanced by formulating SDs of repaglinide with PEG 4000. This will likely lead to increase in bioavailability which would be beneficial for better glucose control in diabetic patients.

In situ epicatechin-loaded hydrogel implants for local drug delivery to spinal column for effective management of post-traumatic spinal injuries

Purpose: To prepare hydrogels loaded with epicatechin, a strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective tea flavonoid, and characterise them in situ as a vehicle for prolonged and safer drug delivery in patients with post-traumatic spinal cord injury. Methods: Five in situ gel formulations were prepared using chitosan and evaluated in terms of their visual appearance, clarity, pH, viscosity, and in vitro drug release. In vivo anti-inflammatory activity was determined and compared with 2 % piroxicam gel as standard. Motor function activity in a rat model of spinal injury was examined comparatively with i.v. methylprednisolone as standard. Results: The N-methyl pyrrolidone solution (containing 1 % w/w epicatechin with 2 to 10 % w/w chitosan) of the in situ gel formulation had a uniform pH in the range of 4.01 ± 0.12 to 4.27 ± 0.02. High and uniform drug loading, ranging from 94.48 ± 1.28 to 98.08 ± 1.24 %, and good in vitro drug release (79.48 ± 2.84 to 96.48 ± 1.02 % after 7 days) were achieved. The in situ gel prepared from 1 % epicatechin and 2 % chitosan (E5) showed the greatest in vivo anti-inflammatory activity (60.58 % inhibition of paw oedema in standard carrageenan-induced hind rat paw oedema model, compared with 48.08 % for the standard). The gels showed significant therapeutic effectiveness against post-traumainduced spinal injury in rats. E5 elicited maximum motor activity (horizontal bar test) in the spinal injury rat model; the rats that received E5 treatment produced an activity score of 3.62 ± 0.02 at the end of 7 days, compared with 5.0 ± 0.20 following treatment with the standard. Conclusion: In situ epicatechin-loaded gel exhibits significant neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects, and therefore can potentially be used for prolonged and safe drug delivery in patients with traumatic spinal cord injury.

Bioadhesive drug delivery system of diltiazem hydrochloride for improved bioavailability in cardiac therapy

Purpose: To prepare and evaluate bioadhesive buccal films of diltiazem hydrochloride (a L-type calcium channel blocker) for overcoming the limitations of frequent dosing, low bioavailability and gastrointestinal discomfort of oral delivery. Methods: Buccal films were prepared by solvent casting technique using sodium carboxymethylcellulose, polyvinyl pyrrolidone K-30 and polyvinyl alcohol. The films were evaluated for weight, thickness, surface pH, swelling index, in vitro residence time, folding endurance, in vitro release, ex-vivo permeation (across porcine buccal mucosa) and drug content uniformity. Results: The drug content of the formulations was uniform with a range of 18.94 ± 0.066 (F2) to 20.08 ± 0.07 mg per unit film (F1). The films exhibited controlled release ranging from 58.76 ± 1.62 to 91.45 ± 1.02 % over a period > 6 h. The films containing 20 mg diltiazem hydrochloride, polyvinyl alcohol (10 %) and polyvinyl pyrrolidone (1 % w/v) i.e. formulation F5, showed moderate swelling, convenient residence time and promising drug release, and thus can be selected for further development of a buccal film for potential therapeutic uses. Conclusion: The developed formulation is a potential bioadhesive buccal system for delivering diltiazem directly to systemic circulation, circumventing first-pass metabolism, avoiding gastric discomfort and improving bioavailability at a minimal dose.

Moderating effects of contextual factors on relationship between pharmaceutical marketing strategies and physician prescription decision: A review

Decision–making by physicians on patients’ treatment has received increased research attention. Research on the effect of marketing strategies on prescription behaviour has tended to generate controversial results. While some researchers reported a strong influence, some found only moderate effects, while others find no influence at all. The main objective of this paper is to review the influence of the marketing strategies by pharmaceutical firms and contextual factors on physician attitude to drug prescription. The paper presents comprehensive information on pharmaceutical marketing efforts through exhaustive review of relevant literature, and identifies the moderating effects of contextual factors on physician prescribing decisions. It also presents a crucial conceptual model for explaining the theoretical linkages between marketing strategies of pharmaceutical firms, contextual factors and the decision of the physician regarding drug prescription.

Development and evaluation of floating microspheres of curcumin in alloxan-induced diabetic rats

Purpose: To prepare and evaluate floating microspheres of curcumin for prolonged gastric residence and to study their effect on alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Methods: Floating microsphere were prepared by emulsion-solvent diffusion method, using hydroxylpropyl methylcellulose, chitosan and Eudragit S 100 polymer in varying proportions. Ethanol/dichloromethane blend was used as solvent in a ratio of 1:1. The floating microspheres were evaluated for flow properties, particle size, incorporation efficiency, as well as in-vitro floatability and drug release. The anti-diabetic activity of the floating microspheres of batch FM4 was performed on alloxaninduced diabetic rats. Result: The floating microspheres had particle size, buoyancy, drug entrapment efficiency and yield in the ranges of 255.32 - 365.65 μm, 75.58 - 89.59, 72.6 - 83.5, and 60.46 - 80.02 %, respectively. Maximum drug release after 24 h was 82.62 % for formulation FM4 and 73.879, 58.613 and 46.106 % for formulations FM1, FM2, and FM3 respectively. In-vivo data obtained over a 120-h period indicate that curcumin floating microspheres from batch FM4 showed the better glycemic control than control and a commercial brand of the drug. Conclusion: The developed floating curcumin delivery system seems economical and effective in diabetes management in rats, and enhances the bioavailability of the drug.

Polymeric implant of methylprednisolone for spinal injury: preparation and characterization

Purpose: To improve the effectiveness and reduce the systemic side effects of methylprednisolone in traumatic spinal injuries, its polymeric implants were prepared using chitosan and sodium alginate as the biocompatible polymers. Methods: Implants of methylprednisolone sodium succinate (MPSS) were prepared by molding the drug-loaded polymeric mass obtained after ionotropic gelation method. The prepared implants were evaluated for drug loading, in vitro drug release and in vivo performance in traumatic spinal-injury rat model with paraplegia. Results: All the implant formulations were light pale solid matrix with smooth texture. Implants showed 86.56 ± 2.07 % drug loading. Drug release was 89.29 ± 1.25 % at the end of 7 days. Motor function was evaluated in traumatic spinal injury-induced rats in terms of its movement on the horizontal bar. At the end of 7 days, the test group showed the activity score (4.75 ± 0.02) slightly higher than that of standard (4.62 ± 0.25), but the difference was not statistically different (p > 0.05). Conclusion: MPSS-loaded implants produces good recovery in traumatic spinal-injury rats.

Étude de propriétés physico-chimiques des membranes lipidiques chargées d’acide palmitique/stérol et de stéarylamine/cholestérol

Les stérosomes, des vésicules artificielles composées d’amphiphiles monoalkylés et d’un grand pourcentage de stérols, sont prometteurs dans plusieurs domaines comme les industries pharmaceutiques et alimentaires. Il existe des stérosomes chargés négativement, positivement et neutres. Dans ce mémoire, nous avons approfondi nos connaissances sur les propriétés physico-chimiques des stérosomes chargés : acide palmitique (PA)/stérol et stéarylamine (SA)/cholestérol (Chol). Premièrement, afin de mesurer la diffusion latérale de PA dans les membranes PA/stérol (30/70 mol/mol) par RMN à gradients pulsés, nous avons tenté de former des bicouches liquide-ordonnées (lo) orientées magnétiquement avec ce mélange. En s'inspirant de l’idée que l’ajout de 1,2-dihexanoyl-sn-glycéro-3-phosphocholine (DHPC), un lipide à courtes chaînes, dans le système 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycéro-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) mène à la formation de bicouches orientées, nous avons étudié la formulation PA perdeutéré/acide hexanoïque (HA)/Chol avec une proportion molaire de 25/18/57 à plusieurs températures; aucune formation de bicouches orientées n’a été observée. Ce résultat pourrait être expliqué par la solubilisation partielle de HA en milieu aqueux. Alors, une quantité insuffisante serait insérée dans la bicouche pour induire son orientation. La formulation PA perdeutéré/DHPC/Chol n’a pas conduit, elle non plus, à des bicouches orientées magnétiquement à des températures et concentrations lipidiques variées. En étudiant le mélange DMPC/DHPC/Chol (67/17/14), nous avons remarqué que la présence de Chol inhibait l'orientation magnétique des bicouches. Tandis que le mélange DMPC/DHPC/stigmastérol (SS) avec les proportions molaires 67/19/14 et 72/21/7 conduisait à des bicouches orientées avec leur normale (n) perpendiculaire au champ magnétique à 40 °C et 50 °C. Ces résultats suggèrent que le mélange PA/SS avec une proportion de lipide à courtes chaînes, HA et DHPC, pourrait mener à des bicouches orientées magnétiquement. Le mélange PA/Chol avec un lipide à courtes chaînes pourrait aussi être étudié en présence des lanthanides. Deuxièmement, nous avons examiné la possibilité de moduler la libération de matériel encapsulé dans des liposomes essentiellement composés de PA et d’un stérol. Il est connu que le mélange PA/Chol (30/70) à pH ≥ 7,5 forme des liposomes très peu perméables. Il est avantageux de pouvoir moduler la perméabilité pour avoir un contrôle sur le temps de libération de leur contenu, qui est un paramètre de grande importance pour les formulations liposomales de médicaments. D’abord, il a été montré que l’acide oléique (OA)/Chol (30/70) est capable de former des vésicules, ce qui n’avait jamais été prouvé auparavant. Par contre, les bicouches OA/Chol (30/70) ne sont pas plus perméables que les bicouches PA/Chol (30/70). L’ajout de 1-palmitoyl-2-oléoyl-sn-glycéro-3-phosphatidylcholine (POPC) dans le mélange PA/Chol n’augmente pas plus la perméabilité. En effet, les cinétiques de relargage de calcéine des vésicules PA/POPC/Chol (15/27.5/57.5), POPC/Chol (40/60) et POPC étaient très semblables à celle de PA/Chol (30/70). Il a été remarqué que les études littéraires se contredisent à propos de la perméabilité à la calcéine des bicouches de phosphatidylcholine (PC). L’explication de ces divergences est inconnue pour le moment. En remplaçant la moitié de la proportion molaire de Chol par le cholate de sodium (SC) dans le mélange PA/Chol (30/70), la membrane n’était pas plus apte à libérer son contenu. Il se pourrait que le SC se retrouvant dans la bicouche n’induit pas une diminution d’empilement. Il est aussi possible que le SC ne s'insère pas dans la membrane à cause de son hydrophilie considérable et il pourrait alors former seul des micelles. En remplaçant complètement le Chol par le sulfate de cholestérol (SChol), un stérol chargé négativement, et en préparant les vésicules à un bas pH, la formulation PA/SChol (30/70) mène à une très grande perméabilité à pH 7.5; le relargage est provoqué par un saut de pH. Nos travaux suggèrent qu'il serait possible de moduler la perméabilité des liposomes en les préparant avec le mélange PA/SChol/Chol en variant les proportions entre 30/63/7 à 30/70/0. Le diagramme pH-composition du mélange PA/SChol/Chol indique que ces proportions conduisent, à pH 7.4, à la coexistence de phases solide et lo en différentes proportions, ce qui pourrait moduler la perméabilité membranaire. Troisièmement, les résultats de perméabilité obtenus avec la calcéine et les difficultés survenues lors de l’extrusion des vésicules encapsulant cette sonde nous ont amené à nous demander si la calcéine interagit avec les bicouches chargées. L’impact de certains anions, dont la calcéine, a été examiné sur les bicouches chargées positivement SA/Chol (50/50). La calorimétrie différentielle à balayage (DSC, de l’anglais differential scanning calorimetry), indique qu’il n’y a aucune transition entre 25 et 90 °C pour les liposomes SA/Chol (50/50) à pH = 7.4. L’ajout de chlorure de sodim (375 mM) n’a pas mené à la formation d’agrégats et aucune transition n’a été observée sur le thermogramme. La formation d’agrégats macroscopiques instantanément après l’ajout d’hydrogénophosphate de sodium (125 mM), de sulfate de sodium (125 mM) et de calcéine (3 mM) a été observée. Une transition a été observée sur les thermogrammes en présence de ces sels. Les agrégats observés pourraient être associés à la transition de phase. L’effet des anions sur la température et l’enthalpie de transition suivent le même ordre que la série d’Hofmeister : sulfate > hydrogénophosphate > chlorure (pas de pic). La calcéine avait l’impact le plus prononcé sur l’agrégation; ceci illustre que la calcéine n’est pas une sonde fluorescente inerte avec le mélange SA/Chol. Elle pourrait être un chaotrope volumineux. De plus, les interactions SA-calcéine plus fortes, menant à l’agrégation des vésicules, que les interactions PC-calcéine pourraient s’expliquer par le fait que la SA est chargée positivement.

Essays on competition in the pharmaceutical industry

Chapter 1: Patents and Entry Competition in the Pharmaceutical Industry: The Role of Marketing Exclusivity. Effective patent length for innovation drugs is severely curtailed because of extensive efficacy and safety tests required for FDA approval, raising concern over adequacy of incentives for new drug development. The Hatch-Waxman Act extends patent length for new drugs by five years, but also promotes generic entry by simplifying approval procedures and granting 180-day marketing exclusivity to a first generic entrant before the patent expires. In this paper we present a dynamic model to examine the effect of marketing exclusivity. We find that marketing exclusivity may be redundant and its removal may increase generic firms' profits and social welfare. ^ Chapter 2: Why Authorized Generics?: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations Facing generic competition, the brand-name companies some-times launch generic versions themselves called authorized generics. This practice is puzzling. If it is cannibalization, it cannot be profitable. If it is divisionalization, it should be practiced always instead of sometimes. I explain this phenomenon in terms of switching costs in a model in which the incumbent first develops a customer base to ready itself against generic competition later. I show that only sufficiently low switching costs or large market size justifies launch of AGs. I then use prescription drug data to test those results and find support. ^ Chapter 3: The Merger Paradox and R&D Oligopoly theory says that merger is unprofitable, unless a majority of firms in industry merge. Here, we introduce R&D opportunities to resolve this so-called merger paradox. We have three results. First, when there is one R&D firm, that firm can profitably merge with any number of non-R&D firms. Second, with multiple R&D firms and multiple non-R&D firms, all R&D firms can profitably merge. Third, with two R&D firms and two non-R&D firms, each R&D firms prefer to merge with a non-R&D firm. With three or more than non-R&D firms, however, the R&D firms prefer to merge with each other.^

Investigation of the enhanced antimicrobial activity of combination dry powder inhaler formulations of lactoferrin

The airways of most people with cystic fibrosis are colonized with biofilms of the Gram-negative, opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Delivery of antibiotics directly to the lung in the form of dry powder aerosols offers the potential to achieve high local concentrations directly to the biofilms. Unfortunately, current aerosolised antibiotic regimes are unable to efficiently eradicate these biofilms from the airways. We investigated the ability of the innate antimicrobial, lactoferrin, to enhance the activity of two aminoglycoside antibiotics (tobramycin and gentamicin) against biofilms of P. aeruginosa strain PAO1. Biofilms were prepared in 96 well polystyrene plates. Combinations of the antibiotics and various lactoferrin preparations were spray dried. The bacterial cell viability of the various spray dried combinations was determined. Iron-free lactoferrin (apo lactoferrin) induced a 3-log reduction in the killing of planktonic cell by the aminoglycoside antibiotics (p < 0.01) and also reduced both the formation and persistence of P. aeruginosa biofilms (p < 0.01). Combinations of lactoferrin and an aminoglycoside displays potential as an effective new therapeutic strategy in the treatment of P. aeruginosa biofilms infections such as those typical of the CF lungs.

Étude de propriétés physico-chimiques des membranes lipidiques chargées d’acide palmitique/stérol et de stéarylamine/cholestérol

Les stérosomes, des vésicules artificielles composées d’amphiphiles monoalkylés et d’un grand pourcentage de stérols, sont prometteurs dans plusieurs domaines comme les industries pharmaceutiques et alimentaires. Il existe des stérosomes chargés négativement, positivement et neutres. Dans ce mémoire, nous avons approfondi nos connaissances sur les propriétés physico-chimiques des stérosomes chargés : acide palmitique (PA)/stérol et stéarylamine (SA)/cholestérol (Chol). Premièrement, afin de mesurer la diffusion latérale de PA dans les membranes PA/stérol (30/70 mol/mol) par RMN à gradients pulsés, nous avons tenté de former des bicouches liquide-ordonnées (lo) orientées magnétiquement avec ce mélange. En s'inspirant de l’idée que l’ajout de 1,2-dihexanoyl-sn-glycéro-3-phosphocholine (DHPC), un lipide à courtes chaînes, dans le système 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycéro-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) mène à la formation de bicouches orientées, nous avons étudié la formulation PA perdeutéré/acide hexanoïque (HA)/Chol avec une proportion molaire de 25/18/57 à plusieurs températures; aucune formation de bicouches orientées n’a été observée. Ce résultat pourrait être expliqué par la solubilisation partielle de HA en milieu aqueux. Alors, une quantité insuffisante serait insérée dans la bicouche pour induire son orientation. La formulation PA perdeutéré/DHPC/Chol n’a pas conduit, elle non plus, à des bicouches orientées magnétiquement à des températures et concentrations lipidiques variées. En étudiant le mélange DMPC/DHPC/Chol (67/17/14), nous avons remarqué que la présence de Chol inhibait l'orientation magnétique des bicouches. Tandis que le mélange DMPC/DHPC/stigmastérol (SS) avec les proportions molaires 67/19/14 et 72/21/7 conduisait à des bicouches orientées avec leur normale (n) perpendiculaire au champ magnétique à 40 °C et 50 °C. Ces résultats suggèrent que le mélange PA/SS avec une proportion de lipide à courtes chaînes, HA et DHPC, pourrait mener à des bicouches orientées magnétiquement. Le mélange PA/Chol avec un lipide à courtes chaînes pourrait aussi être étudié en présence des lanthanides. Deuxièmement, nous avons examiné la possibilité de moduler la libération de matériel encapsulé dans des liposomes essentiellement composés de PA et d’un stérol. Il est connu que le mélange PA/Chol (30/70) à pH ≥ 7,5 forme des liposomes très peu perméables. Il est avantageux de pouvoir moduler la perméabilité pour avoir un contrôle sur le temps de libération de leur contenu, qui est un paramètre de grande importance pour les formulations liposomales de médicaments. D’abord, il a été montré que l’acide oléique (OA)/Chol (30/70) est capable de former des vésicules, ce qui n’avait jamais été prouvé auparavant. Par contre, les bicouches OA/Chol (30/70) ne sont pas plus perméables que les bicouches PA/Chol (30/70). L’ajout de 1-palmitoyl-2-oléoyl-sn-glycéro-3-phosphatidylcholine (POPC) dans le mélange PA/Chol n’augmente pas plus la perméabilité. En effet, les cinétiques de relargage de calcéine des vésicules PA/POPC/Chol (15/27.5/57.5), POPC/Chol (40/60) et POPC étaient très semblables à celle de PA/Chol (30/70). Il a été remarqué que les études littéraires se contredisent à propos de la perméabilité à la calcéine des bicouches de phosphatidylcholine (PC). L’explication de ces divergences est inconnue pour le moment. En remplaçant la moitié de la proportion molaire de Chol par le cholate de sodium (SC) dans le mélange PA/Chol (30/70), la membrane n’était pas plus apte à libérer son contenu. Il se pourrait que le SC se retrouvant dans la bicouche n’induit pas une diminution d’empilement. Il est aussi possible que le SC ne s'insère pas dans la membrane à cause de son hydrophilie considérable et il pourrait alors former seul des micelles. En remplaçant complètement le Chol par le sulfate de cholestérol (SChol), un stérol chargé négativement, et en préparant les vésicules à un bas pH, la formulation PA/SChol (30/70) mène à une très grande perméabilité à pH 7.5; le relargage est provoqué par un saut de pH. Nos travaux suggèrent qu'il serait possible de moduler la perméabilité des liposomes en les préparant avec le mélange PA/SChol/Chol en variant les proportions entre 30/63/7 à 30/70/0. Le diagramme pH-composition du mélange PA/SChol/Chol indique que ces proportions conduisent, à pH 7.4, à la coexistence de phases solide et lo en différentes proportions, ce qui pourrait moduler la perméabilité membranaire. Troisièmement, les résultats de perméabilité obtenus avec la calcéine et les difficultés survenues lors de l’extrusion des vésicules encapsulant cette sonde nous ont amené à nous demander si la calcéine interagit avec les bicouches chargées. L’impact de certains anions, dont la calcéine, a été examiné sur les bicouches chargées positivement SA/Chol (50/50). La calorimétrie différentielle à balayage (DSC, de l’anglais differential scanning calorimetry), indique qu’il n’y a aucune transition entre 25 et 90 °C pour les liposomes SA/Chol (50/50) à pH = 7.4. L’ajout de chlorure de sodim (375 mM) n’a pas mené à la formation d’agrégats et aucune transition n’a été observée sur le thermogramme. La formation d’agrégats macroscopiques instantanément après l’ajout d’hydrogénophosphate de sodium (125 mM), de sulfate de sodium (125 mM) et de calcéine (3 mM) a été observée. Une transition a été observée sur les thermogrammes en présence de ces sels. Les agrégats observés pourraient être associés à la transition de phase. L’effet des anions sur la température et l’enthalpie de transition suivent le même ordre que la série d’Hofmeister : sulfate > hydrogénophosphate > chlorure (pas de pic). La calcéine avait l’impact le plus prononcé sur l’agrégation; ceci illustre que la calcéine n’est pas une sonde fluorescente inerte avec le mélange SA/Chol. Elle pourrait être un chaotrope volumineux. De plus, les interactions SA-calcéine plus fortes, menant à l’agrégation des vésicules, que les interactions PC-calcéine pourraient s’expliquer par le fait que la SA est chargée positivement.