An adenovirus-based fluorescent reporter vector to identify and isolate HIV-infected cells.

A procedure is described that allows the simple identification and sorting of live human cells that transcribe actively the HIV virus, based on the detection of GFP fluorescence in cells. Using adenoviral vectors for gene transfer, an expression cassette including the HIV-1 LTR driving the reporter gene GFP was introduced into cells that expressed stably either the Tat transcriptional activator, or an inactive mutant of Tat. Both northern and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis indicate that cells containing the functional Tat protein presented levels of GFP mRNA and GFP fluorescence several orders of magnitude higher than control cells. Correspondingly, cells infected with HIV-1 showed similar enhanced reporter gene activation. HIV-1-infected cells of the lymphocytic line Jurkat were easily identified by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) as they displayed a much higher green fluorescence after transduction with the reporter adenoviral vector. This procedure could also be applied on primary human cells as blood monocyte-derived macrophages exposed to the adenoviral LTR-GFP reporter presented a much higher fluorescence when infected with HIV-1 compared with HIV-uninfected cells. The vector described has the advantages of labelling cells independently of their proliferation status and that analysis can be carried on intact cells which can be isolated subsequently by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) for further culture. This work suggests that adenoviral vectors carrying a virus-specific transcriptional control element controlling the expressions of a fluorescent protein will be useful in the identification and isolation of cells transcribing actively the viral template, and to be of use for drug screening and susceptibility assays.

'Biased' Risk Perceptions of Longevity and Disability in Old Age

Rational learning theories postulate that information channels and cognitive biases such as individual optimism may influence an individual¿s assessment of the risk of undesired events, especially with regard to those that have a cumulative nature. This is the case with disability in old age, which may take place upon survival to an advanced age, and such factors have been regarded as responsible for certain individual behaviours (for example, the limited incidence of insurance purchase). This paper examines the determinants of individual perceptions with regard to disability in old age and longevity. The cumulative nature of such perceptions of risk is tested, and potential biases are identified, including `optimism¿ and a set of information determinants. Empirical evidence from a representative survey of Catalonia is presented to illustrate these effects. The findings from this research suggest a significant overestimation of disability in old age, yet this is not the case with longevity. Furthermore, individual perceptions with regard to disability in old age, unlike those with regard to longevity, exhibit on aggregate an `optimistic bias¿ and, are perceived as `cumulative risks¿. Gender influences the perceived risk of disability in old age at a population level but not at the individual level, and the opposite holds true for age. Finally, self-reported health status is the main variable behind risk perceptions at both the individual and population level.

A mutation in the gene encoding the vaccinia virus 37,000-M(r) protein confers resistance to an inhibitor of virus envelopment and release.

Plaque formation in vaccinia virus is inhibited by the compound N1-isonicotinoyl-N2-3-methyl-4-chlorobenzoylhydrazine (IMCBH). We have isolated a mutant virus that forms wild-type plaques in the presence of the drug. Comparison of wild-type and mutant virus showed that both viruses produced similar amounts of infectious intracellular naked virus in the presence of the drug. In contrast to the mutant, no extracellular enveloped virus was obtained from IMCBH-treated cells infected with wild-type virus. Marker rescue experiments were used to map the mutation conferring IMCBH resistance to the mutant virus. The map position coincided with that of the gene encoding the viral envelope antigen of M(r) 37,000. Sequence analysis of both wild-type and mutant genes showed a single nucleotide change (G to T) in the mutant gene. In the deduced amino acid sequence, the mutation changes the codon for an acidic Asp residue in the wild-type gene to one for a polar noncharged Tyr residue in the mutant.

Cotton manufacturers as bankers: the textile trade and credit in spain, 1840-1913

[cat] La historiografia ha assenyalat que en el segle XIX el crèdit que els fabricants cotoners catalans oferien als seus clients era de caràcter informal i, per tant, impossible de ser transferit al sistema bancari. Això hauria tingut un efecte negatiu en la rendibilitat de les empreses cotoneres. A partir de l’anàlisi de diversos arxius empresarials, així com de fonts judicials i notarials, aquest treball confirma aquesta descripció dels fets però proposa una interpretació més optimista. Els fabricants feien de banquers dels seus clients perquè eren els millor situats per a exercir aquesta funció. Havien construït una bona estructura d’informació, gestionaven eficientment el risc creditici i obtenien beneficis d’aquesta activitat.

Specialisation in Europe and asymmetric shocks: potential risks of EMU

Most optimistic views, based on Optimum Currency Areas (OCA) literature, have concluded that the probability of asymmetric shocks to occur at anational level will tend to diminish in the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)as a result of the intensification of the integration process during the most recent years. Therefore, since Economic Geography Theories predict a higherspecialisation of regions, it is expected that asymmetric shocks will increase.Previous studies have examined to what extent asymmetric shocks have been relevant in the past using, mainly, static measures of asymmetries such as the correlation coefficients between series of shocks previously calculated from astructural VAR model (Bayoumi and Eichengreen, 1992).In this paper, we study the evolution of manufacturing specific asymmetries in Europe from a dynamic point of view (applying the modelproposed by Haldane and Hall, 1991) in order to obtain new evidence about potential risks of EMU.

Hepatitis C virus-mediated mitochondrial dysfunctions are prevented and rescued by cyclophilin inhibition

Alisporivir (Debio-025) is an analogue of cyclosporine A andrepresents the prototype of a new class of non-immunosuppressivecyclophilin inhibitors. In vitro and in vivo studies have shownthat alisporivir inhibits hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication andongoing clinical trials are exploring its therapeutic potential inpatients with chronic hepatitis C. Recent data suggest that theantiviral effect is mediated by inhibition of cyclophilin A whichis an essential host factor in the HCV life cycle. However, alisporiviralso inhibits mitochondrial permeability transition by bindingto cyclophilin D. As HCV is known to affect mitochondrialfunction, we explored the effect of alisporivir on HCV proteinmediatedmitochondrial dysfunction. By the use of inducible celllines, which allow to investigate the effects of HCV polyproteinexpression independent from viral RNA replication and whichrecapitulate the major alterations of mitochondrial bioenergeticsobserved in infectious cell systems, we show that alisporivir preventsHCV protein-mediated cytochrome c redistribution,decrease of cell respiration, collapse of mitochondrial membranepotential, overproduction of reactive oxygen species and mitochondrialcalcium overload. Strikingly, some of the HCV-mediatedmitochondrial dysfunctions could even be rescued byalisporivir. These observations provide new insights into thepathogenesis of HCV-related liver disease and reveal an additionalmechanism of action of alisporivir that is likely beneficialin the treatment of chronic hepatitis C.

B cell response after MMTV infection: extrafollicular plasmablasts represent the main infected population and can transmit viral infection.

The immune response to mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) relies on the presentation of an MMTV-encoded superantigen by infected B cells to superantigen-specific T cells. The initial extrafollicular B cell differentiation involved the generation of B cells expressing low levels of B220. These B220low B cells corresponded to plasmablasts that expressed high levels of CD43 and syndecan-1 and were CD62 ligand- and IgD-. Viral DNA was detected nearly exclusively in these B220low B cells by PCR, and retroviral type-A particles were observed in their cytoplasm by electron microscopy. An MMTV transmission to the offspring was also achieved after transfer of B220low CD62 ligand- CD43+ plasmablasts into noninfected females. These data suggest that B220low plasmablasts, representing the bulk of infected B cells, are capable of sustaining viral replication and may be involved in the transmission of MMTV.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV)-specific cellular immune responses.

A large percentage of healthy individuals (50-90%) is chronically infected with Cytomegalovirus (CMV). Over the past few years, several techniques were developed in order to monitor CMV-specific T-cell responses. In addition to the identification of antigen-specific T cells with peptide-loaded MHC complexes, most of the current strategies to identify CMV-specific T cells are centered on the assessment of the functions of memory T cells including their ability to mediate effector function, to proliferate or to secrete cytokines following antigen-specific stimulation. The investigation of these functions has allowed the characterization of the CMV-specific T-cell responses that are present during different phases of the infection. Furthermore, it has also been shown that the combination of virus-specific CD4 and CD8 T-cell responses are critical components of the immune response in the control of virus replication.

Molecular mechanisms implicated in NF-κB activation and antiviral defense

SUMMARY Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) transcription factors control many aspects of cell fate through induction of inflammatory, immune or survival molecules. We have identified two novel proteins, named receptor interacting protein (RIP)-4 and caspase recruitment domain (CARD) adaptor inducing interferon-β (Cardif), which activate NF-κB. Further, we have found that Cardif plays a prominent antiviral function. Antiviral innate immunity is mounted upon recognition by the host of virally associated structures like double-stranded (ds) RNA, which constitutes a viral replication product of many viruses within infected cells. dsRNA, depending on its subcellular localization, can be sensed by two separate arms of host defense. Firstly, Toll-like receptor (TLR)-3, a member of the type I transmembrane TLR family, recognizes endosomally-located dsRNA. Secondly, cytoplasmic dsRNA is detected by the recently identified RNA helicase retinoic acid inducible gene I (RIG-I). Triggering of TLR3- and RIG-I-dependent pathways results in the activation of the transcription factors NF-κB and Interferon regulatory factor (IRF)-3, which cooperatively transduce antiviral immune responses. We have demonstrated that RIP1, a kinase previously shown to be required for TNF signaling, transmits TLR3-dependent NF-κB activation. Further we have identified and characterized Cardif as an essential adaptor transmitting RIG-I-mediated antiviral responses, including activation of NF-κB and IRF3. In addition, we showed that Cardif is cleaved and inactivated by a serine protease of hepatitis C virus, and therefore may represent an attractive target for this virus to escape innate immune responses. RESUME Les facteurs de transcription "nuclear factor kappa B" (NF-κB) contrôlent divers aspects du devenir cellulaire à travers l'induction de molécules inflammatoires, immunitaires ou de survie. Nous avons identifié deux nouvelles protéines, nommées "receptor interacting protein" (RIP)-4 et "caspase recruitment domain (CARD) adaptor inducing interferon-β" (Cardif), qui activent NF-κB. En outre, nous avons trouvé que Cardif joue un rôle antiviral crucial. L'immunité innée antivirale s'établit au moment de la reconnaissance par l'hôte de structures virales, comme l'ARN double brin, qui constitue un produit de réplication de beaucoup de virus à l'intérieur de cellules infectées. L'ARN double brin, dépendant de sa localisation subcellulaire, peut être détecté par deux branches de défense distinctes. Premièrement, le récepteur transmembranaire "Toll-like" (TLR), TLR3, reconnaît l'ARN double brin lorsque localisé dans les endosomes. Deuxièmement, l'ARN double brin cytoplasmique est reconnu par l'ARN hélicase récemment décrite "retinoic acid inducible gene I" (RIG-I). Le déclenchement de voies dépendantes de TLR3 et RIG-I active les facteurs de transcription NF-κB et IRF3, qui coopèrent afin de transduire des réponses immunitaires antivirales. Nous avons démontré que RIP1, une kinase décrite précédemment dans le signalement du TNF, transmet l'activation de NF-κB dépendante de TLR3. De plus, nous avons identifié et caractérisé Cardif comme un adapteur essentiel transmettant les réponses antivirales médiées par RIG-I, qui incluent l'activation de NF-κB et IRF3. De surcroît, Cardif est clivé et inactivé par une sérine protéase du virus de l'hépatite C, et ainsi pourrait représenter une cible attractive pour ce virus afin d'échapper aux réponses immunitaires innées.

Molecular genetic approaches to the biology of the moss "Physcomitrella patens"

La mousse haplobiontique Physcomitrella patens est utilisée comme système génétique modèle pour l'étude du développement des plantes. Cependant, l'absence d'un protocole efficace de transformation a constitué jusqu'à présent un gros désavantage méthodologique pour le développement futur de ce système expérimental. Les résultats présentés dans le premier chapitre relatent la mise au point d'un protocole de transformation basé sur la technique de transfert direct de gènes dans des protoplastes par précipitation au PEG. Un essai d'expression transitoire de gènes a été mis au point. Ce protocole a été adapté afin de permettre l'introduction in vivo d'anticorps dans des protoplastes. Le protocole modifié permet d'introduire simultanément du DNA et des IgG dans les cellules, et nous avons démontré que ces anticorps peuvent inactiver spécifiquement le produit d'un gène co-introduit (GUS), ainsi que certaines protéines impliquées dans des processus cellulaires (tubuline). Cet essai, baptisé "essai transitoire d'immuno-inactivation in vivo", devrait être directement applicable à d'autres protoplastes végétaux, et permettre l'élaboration de nouvelles stratégies dans l'étude de processus cellulaires. Le second chapitre est consacré aux expériences de transformation de la mousse avec des gènes conférant une résistance à des antibiotiques. Nos résultats démontrent que l'intégration de gènes de résistance dans le génome de P. patens est possible, mais que cet événement est rare. Il s'agit là néanmoins de la première démonstration d'une transformation génétique réussie de cet organisme. L'introduction de gènes de résistance aux antibiotiques dans les protoplastes de P. patens génère à haute fréquence des clones résistants instables. Deux classes de clones instables ont été identifiés. La caractérisation phénotypique, génétique et moléculaire de ces clones suggère fortement que les séquences transformantes sont concaténées pour former des structures de haut poids moléculaire, et que ces structures sont efficacement répliquées et maintenues dans les cellules résistantes en tant qu'éléments génétiques extrachromosomaux. Ce type de transformation nous permet d'envisager des expériences permettant l'identification des séquences génomiques impliquées dans la replication de l'ADN de mousse. Plusieurs lignées transgéniques ont été retransformées avec des plasmides portant des séquences homologues aux séquences intégrées dans le génome, mais conférant une résistance à un autre antibiotique. Les résultats présentés dans le troisième chapitre montrent que les fréquences de transformation intégrative dans les lignées transgéniques sont 10 fois plus élevées que dans la lignée sauvage, et que cette augmentation est associée à une coségrégation des gènes de résistance dans la plupart des clones testés. Ces résultats génétiques indiquent que l'intégration de séquences d'ADN étranger dans le génome de P. patens a lieu en moyenne 10 fois plus fréquemment par recombinaison homologue que par intégration aléatoire. Ce rapport homologue/aléatoire est 10000 fois supérieur aux rapports obtenus avec d'autres plantes, et fournit l'outil indispensable à la réalisation d'expériences de génétique inverse dans cet organisme à haplophase dominante. THESIS SUMMARY The moss Physcomitrella patens is used as a model genetic system to study plant development, taking advantage of the fact that the haploid gametophyte dominates in its life cycle. But further development of this model system was hampered by the lack of a protocol allowing the genetic transformation of this plant. We have developed a transformation protocol based on PEG-mediated direct gene transfer to protoplasts. Our data demonstrate that this procedure leads to the establishment of an efficient transient gene expression assay. A slightly modified protocol has been developed allowing the in vivo introduction of antibodies in moss protoplasts. Both DNA and IgGs can be loaded simultaneously, and specific antibodies can immunodeplete the product of an expression cassette (GUS) as well as proteins involved in cellular processes (tubulins). This assay, named transient in vivo immunodepletion assay, should be applicable to other plant protoplasts, and offers new approaches to study cellular processes. Transformations have been performed with bacterial plasmids carrying antibiotic resistance expression cassette. Our data demonstrate that integrative transformation occurs, but at low frequencies. This is the first demonstration of a successful genetic transformation of mosses. Resistant unstable colonies are recovered at high frequencies following transformation, and two different classes of unstable clones have been identified. Phenotypical, genetic and molecular characterisation of these clones strongly suggests that bacterial plasmids are concatenated to form high molecular arrays which are efficiently replicated and maintained as extrachromosomal elements in the resistant cells. Replicative transformation in P. patens should allow the design of experiments aimed at the identification of genomic sequences involved in moss DNA replication. Transgenic strains have been retransformed with bacterial plasmids carrying sequences homologous to the integrated transloci, but conferring resistance to another antibiotic. Our results demonstrate an order of magnitude increase of integrative transformation frequencies in transgenic strains as compared to wild-type, associated with cosegregation of the resistance genes in most of these double resistant transgenic strains. These observations provide strong genetic evidence that gene targeting occurs about ten times more often than random integration in the genome of P. patens. Such ratio of targeted to random integration is about 10 000 times higher than previous reports of gene targeting in plants, and provides the essential requirement for the development of efficient reverse genetics in the haplodiplobiontic P. patens.

Low-dose cidofovir for the treatment of polyomavirus-associated nephropathy: two case reports and review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: Polyomavirus-associated nephropathy (PVAN) is a serious complication and cause of graft loss in kidney transplant recipients. In the absence of specific antiviral drugs, early detection of the disease and reduction of immunosuppressive regimen is the cornerstone of therapy. Cidofovir, a nucleoside analogue, has been found to inhibit BK virus (BKV) replication in vitro and has been proposed as treatment of refractory PVAN at low doses; however, its efficacy has never been demonstrated in randomized controlled trials. METHODS: Cidofovir therapy (0.5 mg/kg at a 2-week interval for eight consecutive doses) was initiated in two patients with biopsy-proven PVAN and persistent BKV DNA viraemia (> or = 10,000 copies/ml despite sustained reduction of the immunosuppressive regimen). In addition to these two case reports, we performed a critical review of the literature on the use of cidofovir in PVAN. RESULTS: No significant decrease of BKV viral load in blood was observed during cidofovir therapy and in follow-up of the two patients treated with cidofovir. Our literature review identified 21 publications reporting the use of cidofovir for the treatment of PVAN. All were case reports or small series. The efficacy of cidofovir therapy could not be assessed in 17 of these publications because of lack of data or concomitant reduction of immunosuppressive regimen. The four remaining publications were case reports. CONCLUSIONS: In vitro and clinical data to support the efficacy of cidofovir in the treatment of PVAN are currently lacking. More promising compounds should be identified for further clinical studies.

The antiviral adaptor proteins Cardif and Trif are processed and inactivated by caspases

The outcome of a viral infection depends on the interplay between the host's capacity to trigger potent antiviral responses and viral mechanisms that counteract them. Although Toll-like receptor (TLR)-3, which recognizes virally derived double-stranded (ds) RNA, transmits downstream antiviral signaling through the TIR adaptor Trif (TICAM-1), viral RNA-sensing RIG-like helicases (RLHs) use the mitochondrial-bound CARD protein Cardif (IPS-1/MAVS/VISA). The importance of these two antiviral signaling pathways is reflected by the fact that both adaptors are inhibited through specific cleavage triggered by the hepatitis C virus serine protease NS3-4A. Here, we show that inactivation can also occur through cellular caspases activated by various pro-apoptotic signals. Upon caspase-dependent cleavage both adaptors loose their capacity to activate the transcription factors interferon regulatory factors (IRF) and NF-kappaB. Importantly, poliovirus infection triggers a caspase-dependent cleavage of Cardif, suggesting that some viruses may activate caspases not only as a mean to facilitate shedding and replication, but also to impair antiviral responses

The SOS screen in Arabidopsis: a search for functions involved in DNA metabolism.

The SOS screen, as originally described by Perkins et al. (1999) [7], was setup with the aim of identifying Arabidopsis functions that might potentially be involved in the DNA metabolism. Such functions, when expressed in bacteria, are prone to disturb replication and thus trigger the SOS response. Consistently, expression of AtRAD51 and AtDMC1 induced the SOS response in bacteria, even affecting E. coli viability. 100 SOS-inducing cDNAs were isolated from a cDNA library constructed from an Arabidopsis cell suspension that was found to highly express meiotic genes. A large proportion of these SOS(+) candidates are clearly related to the DNA metabolism, others could be involved in the RNA metabolism, while the remaining cDNAs encode either totally unknown proteins or proteins that were considered as irrelevant. Seven SOS(+) candidate genes are induced following gamma irradiation. The in planta function of several of the SOS-inducing clones was investigated using T-DNA insertional mutants or RNA interference. Only one SOS(+) candidate, among those examined, exhibited a defined phenotype: silenced plants for DUT1 were sensitive to 5-fluoro-uracil (5FU), as is the case of the leaky dut-1 mutant in E. coli that are affected in dUTPase activity. dUTPase is essential to prevent uracil incorporation in the course of DNA replication.

The functions of DNA methylation by CcrM in Caulobacter crescentus: a global approach.

DNA methylation is involved in a diversity of processes in bacteria, including maintenance of genome integrity and regulation of gene expression. Here, using Caulobacter crescentus as a model, we exploit genome-wide experimental methods to uncover the functions of CcrM, a DNA methyltransferase conserved in most Alphaproteobacteria. Using single molecule sequencing, we provide evidence that most CcrM target motifs (GANTC) switch from a fully methylated to a hemi-methylated state when they are replicated, and back to a fully methylated state at the onset of cell division. We show that DNA methylation by CcrM is not required for the control of the initiation of chromosome replication or for DNA mismatch repair. By contrast, our transcriptome analysis shows that >10% of the genes are misexpressed in cells lacking or constitutively over-expressing CcrM. Strikingly, GANTC methylation is needed for the efficient transcription of dozens of genes that are essential for cell cycle progression, in particular for DNA metabolism and cell division. Many of them are controlled by promoters methylated by CcrM and co-regulated by other global cell cycle regulators, demonstrating an extensive cross talk between DNA methylation and the complex regulatory network that controls the cell cycle of C. crescentus and, presumably, of many other Alphaproteobacteria.

Identification of GPx8 as a novel cellular substrate of the hepatitis C virus NS3-4A protease

Background: The hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS3-4A protease is not only an essential component of the viral replication complex and a prime target for antiviral intervention but also a key player in the persistence and pathogenesis of HCV. It cleaves and thereby inactivates two crucial adaptor proteins in viral RNA sensing and innate immunity (MAVS and TRIF) as well as a phosphatase involved in growth factor signaling (TC-PTP). The aim of this study was to identify novel cellular substrates of the NS3-4A protease and to investigate their role in the life cycle and pathogenesis of HCV. Methods: Cell lines inducibly expressing the NS3-4A protease were analyzed in basal as well as interferon- α -stimulated states by stable isotopic labeling using amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) coupled with protein separation and mass spectrometry. Candidates fulfilling strin- gent criteria for potential substrates or products of the NS3-4A protease were further investigated in different experimental sys- tems as well as in liver biopsies from patients with chronic hep- atitis C. Results: SILAC coupled with protein separation and mass spectrometry yielded > 5000 proteins of which 21 can- didates were selected for further analyses. These allowed us to identify GPx8, a membrane-associated peroxidase involved in disulfide bond formation in the endoplasmic reticulum, as a novel cellular substrate of the HCV NS3-4A protease. Cleavage occurs at cysteine in position 11, removing the cytosolic tip of GPx8, and was observed in different experimental systems as well as in liver biopsies from patients with chronic hepatitis C. Further functional studies, involving overexpression and RNA silencing, revealed that GPx8 is a proviral factor involved in viral particle production but not in HCV entry or RNA replica- tion. Conclusions: GPx8 is a proviral host factor cleaved by the HCV NS3-4A protease. Studies investigating the consequences of cleavage for GPx8 function are underway. The identification of novel cellular substrates of the HCV NS3-4A protease should yield new insights into the HCV life cycle and the pathogenesis of hepatitis C and may reveal novel angles for therapeutic inter- vention.