Synthesis and characterization of amphiphilic star copolymers of 2-(dimethylamino) ethyl methacrylate and methyl methacrylate: Effects of architecture and composition

Six amphiphilic star copolymers comprising hydrophilic units of 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA) and hydrophobic units of methyl methacrylate (MMA) were prepared by the sequential group transfer polymerization (GTP) of the two comonomers and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) cross-linker. Four star-block copolymers of different compositions, one miktoarm star, and one statistical copolymer star were synthesized. The molecular weights (MWs) and MW distributions of all the star copolymers and their linear homopolymer and copolymer precursors were characterized by gel permeation chromatography (GPC), while the compositions of the stars were determined by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (H-1 NMR) spectroscopy. Tetrahydrofuran (THF) solutions of all the star copolymers were characterized by static light scattering to determine the absolute weight-average MW ((M) over bar (w)) and the number of arms of the stars. The R, of the stars ranged between 359,000 and 565,000 g mol(-1), while their number of arms ranged between 39 and 120. The star copolymers were soluble in acidic water at pH 4 giving transparent or slightly opaque solutions, with the exception of the very hydrophobic DMAEMA(10)-b-MMA(30)-star, which gave a very opaque solution. Only the random copolymer star was completely dispersed in neutral water, giving a very opaque solution. The effective pKs of the copolymer stars were determined by hydrogen ion titration and were found to be in the range 6.5-7.6. The pHs of precipitation of the star copolymer solutions/dispersions were found to be between 8.8-10.1, except for the most hydrophobic DMA-EMA(10)-b-MMA(30)-Star, which gave a very opaque solution over the whole pH range. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Hylaranins: prototypes of a new class of amphibian antimicrobial peptide from the skin secretion of the oriental broad-folded frog, Hylarana latouchii

Amphibian skin secretions contain a broad spectrum of biologically active compounds, particularly antimicrobial peptides, which are considered to constitute a first line of defence against bacterial infection. Here we describe the identification of two prototype peptides representing a novel structural class of antimicrobial peptide from the skin secretion of the oriental broad-folded frog, Hylarana latouchii. Named hylaranin-L1 (GVLSAFKNALPGIMKIIVamide) and hylaranin-L2 (GVLSVIKNALPGIMRFIAamide), both peptides consist of 18 amino acid residues, are C-terminally amidated and are of unique primary structures. Their primary structures were initially deduced by MS/MS fragmentation sequencing from reverse-phase HPLC fractions of skin secretion that demonstrated antimicrobial activity. Subsequently, their precursor-encoding cDNAs were cloned from a skin secretion-derived cDNA library and their primary structures were confirmed unequivocally. Synthetic replicates of both peptides exhibited broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity with mean inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 34 µM against Gram-negative Escherichia coli, 4.3 µM against Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus and 4–9 µM against the yeast, Candida albicans. Both peptides exhibited little haemolytic activity (<6 %) at the MICs for S. aureus and C. albicans. Amphibian skin secretions thus continue to provide novel antimicrobial peptide structures that may prove to be lead compounds in the design of new classes of anti-infection therapeutics.

Cationic Antimicrobial Peptide Cytotoxicity

Fluorescence microscopy serves as a valuable tool for assessing the structural integrity and viability of eukaryotic cells. Through the use of calcein AM and the DNA stain 4,6-diamidino-2 phenylindole (DAPI), cell viability and membrane integrity can be qualified. Our group has previously shown the ultra-short cationic antimicrobial peptide H-OOWW-NH₂; the amphibian derived 27-mer peptide Maximin-4and the ultra-short lipopeptide C₁₂-OOWW-NH₂ to be effective against a range of bacterial biofilms [1], displaying potential for use in the prevention of medical device-related infections [2]. Analysis of fluorescence micrographs, after staining with calcein AM and DAPI, shows the likely mode of cytotoxic action of cationic antimicrobial peptides and lipopeptides are via directmembrane disruption in eukaryotic cells. Selectivity is towards cidal action against prokaryotic cells, whose membranes are anionic in composition, such as those of bacteria, rather than for neutral zwitterionic membranes of eukaryotic cells. Membrane selectivity is determined by a multitude of physical parameters, particularly charge and hydrophobicity. The charge of the antimicrobial determines the extent of the initial electrostatic interactions with both prokaryotic and eukaryotic membranes, with a larger cationic charge favoring antimicrobial action. Tailoring of these properties is likely to be the key in successfully transferring antimicrobial peptides from laboratory experiments into clinical practice as safe pharmaceutical formulations.

Hazardous alcohol consumption is associated with increased levels of B-type natriuretic peptide: evidence from two population-based studies

Russia has very high mortality from cardiovascular disease (CVD), with evidence that heavy drinking may play a role. To throw further light on this association we have studied the association of alcohol with predictors of CVD risk including B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP). Levels of BNP increase primarily in response to abnormal cardiac chamber wall stretch which can occur both as a result of atherosclerosis as well as due to other types of damage to the myocardium. No previous population-based studies have investigated the association with alcohol. We analysed cross-sectional data on drinking behaviour in 993 men aged 25-60 years from the Izhevsk Family Study 2 (IFS2), conducted in the Russian city of Izhevsk in 2008-2009. Relative to non-drinkers, men who drank hazardously had an odds ratio (OR) of being in the top 20 % of the BNP distribution of 4.66 (95 % CI 2.13, 10.19) adjusted for age, obesity, waist-hip ratio, and smoking. Further adjustment for class of hypertension resulted in only slight attenuation of the effect, suggesting that this effect was not secondary to the influence of alcohol on blood pressure. In contrast hazardous drinking was associated with markedly raised ApoA1 and HDL cholesterol levels, but had little impact on levels of ApoB and LDL cholesterol. Similar but less pronounced associations were found in the Belfast (UK) component of the PRIME study conducted in 1991. These findings suggest that the association of heavy drinking with increased risk of cardiovascular disease may be partly due to alcohol-induced non-atherosclerotic damage to the myocardium.

Ranakinestatin-PPF from the Skin Secretion of the Fukien Gold-Striped Pond Frog, Pelophylax plancyi fukienensis: A Prototype of a Novel Class of Bradykinin B2 Receptor Antagonist Peptide from Ranid Frogs

The defensive skin secretions of many amphibians are a rich source of bradykinins and bradykinin-related peptides (BRPs). Members of this peptide group are also common components of reptile and arthropod venoms due to their multiple biological functions that include induction of pain, effects on many smooth muscle types, and lowering systemic blood pressure. While most BRPs are bradykinin receptor agonists, some have curiously been found to be exquisite antagonists, such as the maximakinin gene-related peptide, kinestatin—a specific bradykinin B₂-receptor antagonist from the skin of the giant fire-bellied toad, Bombina maxima. Here, we describe the identification, structural and functional characterization of a heptadecapeptide (DYTIRTRLHQGLSRKIV), named ranakinestatin-PPF, from the skin of the Chinese ranid frog, Pelophylax plancyi fukienensis, representing a prototype of a novel class of bradykinin B₂-receptor specific antagonist. Using a preconstricted preparation of rat tail arterial smooth muscle, a single dose of 10⁻⁶ M of the peptide effectively inhibited the dose-dependent relaxation effect of bradykinin between 10⁻¹¹ M and 10⁻⁵ M and subsequently, this effect was pharmacologically-characterized using specific bradykinin B₁- (desArg-HOE140) and B₂-receptor (HOE140) antagonists; the data from which demonstrated that the antagonism of the novel peptide was mediated through B₂-receptors. Ranakinestatin—PPF—thus represents a prototype of an amphibian skin peptide family that functions as a bradykinin B₂-receptor antagonist herein demonstrated using mammalian vascular smooth muscle.

Molecular Cloning of a Novel Tryptophyllin Peptide from the Skin of the Orange-Legged Monkey Frog, Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis

Tryptophyllins are a group of small (4–14 amino acids), heterogenous peptides, mostly from the skins of hylid frogs from the genera, Phyllomedusa and Litoria. To date, more than forty TPHs have been discovered in species from these two genera. Here, we describe the identification of a novel tryptophyllin type 3 peptide, PhT-3, from the extracts of skin of the orange-legged monkey frog, Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis, and molecular cloning of its precursor-encoding cDNA from a cDNA library constructed from the same skin sample. Full primary structural characterization was achieved using a combination of direct Edman degradation, mass spectrometry and deduction from cloned skin-derived cDNA. The open-reading frame of the precursor cDNA was found to consist of 63 amino acid residues. The mature peptide arising from this precursor contains a post-translationally modified N-terminal pyroglutamate (pGlu) residue, formed from acid-mediated cyclization of an N-terminal Gln (Q) residue, and with the structure: pGlu-Asp-Lys-Pro-Phe-Trp-Pro-Pro-Pro-Ile-Tyr-Pro-Met. Pharmacological assessment of a synthetic replicate of this peptide on phenylephrine preconstricted rat tail artery segments, revealed a reduction in relaxation induced by bradykinin. PhT-3 was also found to mediate antiproliferative effects on human prostate cancer cell lines.

Development of a method to quantify the DNA content in DNA- cationic peptide nanoparticles

Gene therapy has the potential to provide safe and targeted therapies for a variety of diseases. A range of intracellular gene delivery vehicles have been proposed for this purpose. Non-viral vectors are a particularly attractive option and among them cationic peptides have emerged as promising candidates. For the pharmaceutical formulation and application to clinical studies it is necessary to quantify the amount of pDNA condensed with the delivery system. There is a severe deficiency in this area, thus far no methods have been reported specifically for pDNA condensed with cationic peptide to form nanoparticles. The current study seeks to address this and describes the evaluation of a range of disruption agents to extract DNA from nanoparticles formed by condensation with cationic fusogenic peptides RALA and KALA. Only proteinase K exhibited efficient and reproducible results and compatibility with the PicoGreen reagent based quantification assay. Thus we report for the first time a simple and reliable method that can quantify the pDNA content in pDNA cationic peptide nanoparticles.

Development and characterization of self-assembling nanoparticles using a bio-inspired amphipathic peptide for gene delivery

The design of a non-viral gene delivery vehicle capable of delivering and releasing a functional nucleic acid cargo intracellularly remains a formidable challenge. For systemic gene therapy to be successful a delivery vehicle is required that protects the nucleic acid cargo from enzymatic degradation, extravasates from the vasculature, traverses the cell membrane, disrupts the endosomal vesicles and unloads the cargo at its destination site, namely the nucleus for the purposes of gene delivery. This manuscript reports the extensive investigation of a novel amphipathic peptide composed of repeating RALA units capable of overcoming the biological barriers to gene delivery both in vitro and in vivo. Our data demonstrates the spontaneous self-assembly of cationic DNA-loaded nanoparticles when the peptide is complexed with pDNA. Nanoparticles were < 100 nm, were stable in the presence of serum and were fusogenic in nature, with increased peptide α-helicity at a lower pH. Nanoparticles proved to be non-cytotoxic, readily traversed the plasma membrane of both cancer and fibroblast cell lines and elicited reporter-gene expression following intravenous delivery in vivo. The results of this study indicate that RALA presents an exciting delivery platform for the systemic delivery of nucleic acid therapeutics.

Selective Targeting of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Signalling As a Novel Therapeutic Approach for Cardiovascular Disease in Diabetes

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is an incretin hormone whose glucose-dependent insulinotropic actions have been harnessed as a novel therapy for glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes. Although it has been known for some time that the GLP-1 receptor is expressed in the cardiovascular system where it mediates important physiological actions, it is only recently that specific cardiovascular effects of GLP-1 in the setting of diabetes have been described. GLP-1 confers indirect benefits in cardiovascular disease (CVD) under both normal and hyperglycaemic conditions via reducing established risk factors, such as hypertension, dyslipidaemia and obesity, which are markedly increased in diabetes. Emerging evidence indicates that GLP-1 also exerts direct effects on specific aspects of diabetic CVD, such as endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, angiogenesis and adverse cardiac remodelling. However, the majority of studies have employed experimental models of diabetic CVD and information on the effects of GLP-1 in the clinical setting are limited although several large-scale trials are ongoing. It is clearly important to gain a detailed knowledge of the cardiovascular actions of GLP-1 in diabetes given the large number of patients currently receiving GLP-1 based therapies. This review will therefore discuss current understanding of the effects of GLP-1 on both cardiovascular risk factors in diabetes and direct actions on the heart and vasculature in this setting, and the evidence implicating specific targeting of GLP-1 as a novel therapy for CVD in diabetes.

Impact of vitamin D3 on cutaneous immunity and antimicrobial peptide expression

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are effectors of cutaneous innate immunity and protect primarily against microbial infections. An array of AMPs can be found in and on the skin. Those include peptides that were first discovered for their antimicrobial properties but also proteins with antimicrobial activity first characterized for their activity as chemokines, enzymes, enzyme inhibitors and neuropeptides. Cathelicidins were among the first families of AMPs discovered in skin. They are now known to exert a dual role in innate immune defense: they have direct antimicrobial activity and will also initiate a host cellular response resulting in cytokine release, inflammation and angiogenesis. Altered cathelicidin expression and function was observed in several common inflammatory skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis, rosacea and psoriasis. Until recently the molecular mechanisms underlying cathelicidin regulation were not known. Lately, vitamin D3 was identified as the major regulator of cathelicidin expression and entered the spotlight as an immune modulator with impact on both, innate and adaptive immunity. Therapies targeting vitamin D3 signalling may provide novel approaches for the treatment of infectious and inflammatory skin diseases by affecting both innate and adaptive immune functions through AMP regulation.

VDR and MEK-ERK dependent induction of the antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin in keratinocytes by lithocholic acid

Cathelicidin is an antimicrobial peptide (AMP) and signaling molecule in innate immunity and a direct target of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25D3) in primary human keratinocytes (NHEK). The expression of cathelicidin is dysregulated in various skin diseases and its regulation differs depending on the epithelial cell type. The secondary bile acid lithocholic acid (LCA) is a ligand of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and can carry out in vivo functions of vitamin D3. Therefore we analyzed cathelicidin mRNA- and peptide expression levels in NHEK and colonic epithelial cells (Caco-2) after stimulation with LCA. We found increased expression of cathelicidin mRNA and peptide in NHEK, in Caco-2 colon cells no effect was observed after LCA stimulation. The VDR as well as MEK-ERK signaled the upregulation of cathelicidin in NHEK induced by LCA. Collectively, our data indicate that cathelicidin induction upon LCA treatment differs in keratinocytes and colonic epithelial cells. Based on these observations LCA-like molecules targeting cathelicidin could be designed for the treatment of cutaneous diseases that are characterized by disturbed cathelicidin expression.

Vitamin D analogs differentially control antimicrobial peptide/"alarmin" expression in psoriasis

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are strongly expressed in lesional skin in psoriasis and play an important role as proinflammatory "alarmins" in this chronic skin disease. Vitamin D analogs like calcipotriol have antipsoriatic effects and might mediate this effect by changing AMP expression. In this study, keratinocytes in lesional psoriatic plaques showed decreased expression of the AMPs beta-defensin (HBD) 2 and HBD3 after topical treatment with calcipotriol. At the same time, calcipotriol normalized the proinflammatory cytokine milieu and decreased interleukin (IL)-17A, IL-17F and IL-8 transcript abundance in lesional psoriatic skin. In contrast, cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide expression was increased by calcipotriol while psoriasin expression remained unchanged. In cultured human epidermal keratinocytes the effect of different vitamin D analogs on the expression of AMPs was further analyzed. All vitamin D analogs tested blocked IL-17A induced HBD2 expression by increasing IkappaB-alpha protein and inhibition of NF-kappaB signaling. At the same time vitamin D analogs induced cathelicidin through activation of the vitamin D receptor and MEK/ERK signaling. These studies suggest that vitamin D analogs differentially alter AMP expression in lesional psoriatic skin and cultured keratinocytes. Balancing AMP "alarmin" expression might be a novel goal in treatment of chronic inflammatory skin diseases.