The value of a saved tree : The lifecycle of CO2-emissions associated with the combination of printing paper and electricity production of wood in the U.S. and Sweden

The pulp- and paper production is a very energy intensive industry sector. Both Sweden and the U.S. are major pulpandpaper producers. This report examines the energy and the CO2-emission connected with the pulp- and paperindustry for the two countries from a lifecycle perspective.New technologies make it possible to increase the electricity production in the integrated pulp- andpaper mill through black liquor gasification and a combined cycle (BLGCC). That way, the mill canproduce excess electricity, which can be sold and replace electricity produced in power plants. In thisprocess the by-products that are formed at the pulp-making process is used as fuel to produce electricity.In pulp- and paper mills today the technology for generating energy from the by-product in aTomlinson boiler is not as efficient as it could be compared to the BLGCC technology. Scenarios havebeen designed to investigate the results from using the BLGCC technique using a life cycle analysis.Two scenarios are being represented by a 1994 mill in the U.S. and a 1994 mill in Sweden.The scenariosare based on the average energy intensity of pulp- and paper mills as operating in 1994 in the U.S.and Sweden respectively. The two other scenarios are constituted by a ��reference mill�� in the U.S. andSweden using state-of-the-art technology. We investigate the impact of varying recycling rates and totalenergy use and CO2-emissions from the production of printing and writing paper. To economize withthe wood and that way save trees, we can use the trees that are replaced by recycling in a biomassgasification combined cycle (BIGCC) to produce electricity in a power station. This produces extra electricitywith a lower CO2 intensity than electricity generated by, for example, coal-fired power plants.The lifecycle analysis in this thesis also includes the use of waste treatment in the paper lifecycle. Both Sweden and theU.S. are countries that recycle paper. Still there is a lot of paper waste, this paper is a part of the countries municipalsolid waste (MSW). A lot of the MSW is landfilled, but parts of it are incinerated to extract electricity. The thesis hasdesigned special scenarios for the use of MSW in the lifecycle analysis.This report is studying and comparing two different countries and two different efficiencies on theBLGCC in four different scenarios. This gives a wide survey and points to essential parameters to specificallyreflect on, when making assumptions in a lifecycle analysis. The report shows that there arethree key parameters that have to be carefully considered when making a lifecycle analysis of wood inan energy and CO2-emission perspective in the pulp- and paper mill in the U.S. and in Sweden. First,there is the energy efficiency in the pulp- and paper mill, then the efficiency of the BLGCC and last theCO2 intensity of the electricity displaced by BIGCC or BLGCC generatedelectricity. It also show that with the current technology that we havetoday, it is possible to produce CO2 free paper with a waste paper amountup to 30%. The thesis discusses the system boundaries and the assumptions.Further and more detailed research, including amongst others thesystem boundaries and forestry, is recommended for more specificanswers.

Out-of-town shopping and its induced CO2-emissions

Planning policies in several European countries have aimed at hindering the expansion of out-of-town shopping centers. One argument for this is concern for the increase in transport and a resulting increase in environmental externalities such as CO2-emissions. This concern is weakly founded in science as few studies have attempted to measure CO2-emissions of shopping trips as a function of the location of the shopping centers. In this paper we conduct a counter-factual analysis comparing downtown, edge-of-town and out-of-town shopping. In this comparison we use GPS to track 250 consumers over a time-span of two months in a Swedish region. The GPS-data enters the Oguchi���s formula to obtain shopping trip-specific CO2-emissions. We find that consumers��� out-of-town shopping would generate an excess of 60 per cent CO2-emissions whereas downtown and edge-of-town shopping centers are comparable.

Trips and their CO2 emissions induced by a shopping center

Most previous studies have focused on entire trips in a geographic region, while a few of them addressed trips induced by a city landmark. Therefore paper explores trips and their CO2 emissions induced by a shopping center from a time-space perspective and their usage in relocation planning. This is conducted by the means of a case study in the city of Borl��nge in mid-Sweden where trips to the city���s largest shopping mall in its center are examined. We use GPS tracking data of car trips that end and start at the shopping center. Thereafter, (1) we analyze the traffic emission patterns from a time-space perspective where temporal patterns reveal an hourly-based traffic emission dynamics and where spatial patterns uncover a heterogeneous distribution of traffic emissions in spatial areas and individual street segments. Further, (2) this study reports that most of the observed trips follow an optimal route in terms of CO2 emissions. In this respect, (3) we evaluate how well placed the current shopping center is through a comparison with two competing locations. We conclude that the two suggested locations, which are close to the current shopping center, do not show a significant improvement in term of CO2 emissions.

Optimal retail location and CO2 emissions

In this paper, the p-median model is used to find the location of retail stores that minimizes CO2 emissions from consumer travel. The optimal location is then compared with the existing retail location,and the excess CO2 emissions compared with the optimal solution is calculated. The results show that by using the environmentally optimal location, CO2 emissions from consumer travel could be reduced by approximately 25percent.��

The effects of taxing truck distance on CO2 emissions from transports in retailing

To finance transportation infrastructure and to address social and environmental negative externalities of road transports, several countries have recently introduced or consider a distance based tax on trucks. In the competitive retail market such tax can be expected to lower the demand and thereby reduce CO2 emissions of road transports. However, as we show in this paper, such tax might also slow down the transition towards e-tailing. Considering that previous research indicates that a consumer switching from brick-and-mortar shopping to e-tailing reduces her CO2 emissions substantially, the direction and magnitude of the environmental net effect of the tax is unclear. In this paper, we assess the net effect in a Swedish regional retail market where the tax not yet is in place. We predict the net effect on CO2 emissions to be positive, but off-set by about 50% because of a slower transition to e-tailing.

CO2 Emissions, GDP and trade : a panel cointegration approach

This paper examines the relationships among per capita CO2 emissions, per capita GDP and international trade based on panel data sets spanning the period 1960-2008: one for 150 countries and the others for sub-samples comprising OECD and Non-OECD economies. We apply panel unit root and cointegration tests, and estimate a panel error correction model. The results from the error correction model suggest that there are long-term relationships between the variables for the whole sample and for Non-OECD countries. Finally, Granger causality tests show that there is bi-directional short-term causality between per capita GDP and international trade for the whole sample and between per capita GDP and CO2 emissions for OECD countries

Measuring CO2 emissions induced by online and brick-and-mortar retailing

We develop a method for empirically measuring the difference in carbon footprint between traditional and online retailing (���e-tailing���) from entry point to a geographical area to consumer residence. The method only requires data on the locations of brick-and-mortar stores, online delivery points, and residences of the region���s population, and on the goods transportation networks in the studied region. Such data are readily available in most countries, so the method is not country or region specific. The method has been evaluated using data from the Dalecarlia region in Sweden, and is shown to be robust to all assumptions made. In our empirical example, the results indicate that the average distance from consumer residence to a brick-and-mortar retailer is 48.54 km in the studied region, while the average distance to an online delivery point is 6.7 km. The results also indicate that e-tailing increases the average distance traveled from the regional entry point to the delivery point from 47.15 km for a brick-and-mortar store to 122.75 km for the online delivery points. However, as professional carriers transport the products in bulk to stores or online delivery points, which is more efficient than consumers��� transporting the products to their residences, the results indicate that consumers switching from traditional to e-tailing on average reduce their CO2 footprints by 84% when buying standard consumer electronics products.��

Measuring CO2 emissions induced by online and brick-and-mortar retailing

We develop a method for empirically measuring the difference in carbon footprint between traditional and online retailing (���e-tailing���) from entry point to a geographical area to consumer residence. The method only requires data on the locations of brick-and-mortar stores, online delivery points, and residences of the region���s population, and on the goods transportation networks in the studied region. Such data are readily available in most countries, so the method is not country or region specific. The method has been evaluated using data from the Dalecarlia region in Sweden, and is shown to be robust to all assumptions made. In our empirical example, the results indicate that the average distance from consumer residence to a brick-and-mortar retailer is 48.54 km in the studied region, while the average distance to an online delivery point is 6.7 km. The results also indicate that e-tailing increases the average distance traveled from the regional entry point to the delivery point from 47.15 km for a brick-and-mortar store to 122.75 km for the online delivery points. However, as professional carriers transport the products in bulk to stores or online delivery points, which is more efficient than consumers��� transporting the products to their residences, the results indicate that consumers switching from traditional to e-tailing on average reduce their CO2 footprints by 84% when buying standard consumer electronics products.��

To what extent are CO2 emissions from intra-urban shopping trips by cars affected by drivers��� travel behaviour and store location?

Transportation is seen as one of the major sources of CO2 pollutants nowadays. The impact of increased transport in retailing should not be underestimated. Most previous studies have focused on transportation and underlying trips, in general, while very few studies have addressed the specific affects that, for instance, intra-city shopping trips generate. Furthermore, most of the existing methods used to estimate emission are based on macro-data designed to generate national or regional inventory projections. There is a lack of studies using micro-data based methods that are able to distinguish between driver behaviour and the locational effects induced by shopping trips, which is an important precondition for energy efficient urban planning. The aim of this study is to implement a micro-data method to estimate and compare CO2 emission induced by intra-urban car travelling to a retail destination of durable goods (DG), and non-durable goods (NDG). We estimate the emissions from aspects of travel behaviour and store location. The study is conducted by means of a case study in the city of Borl��nge, where GPS tracking data on intra-urban car travel is collected from 250 households. We find that a behavioural change during a trip towards a CO2 optimal travelling by car has the potential to decrease emission to 36% (DG), and to 25% (NDG) of the emissions induced by car-travelling shopping trips today. There is also a potential of reducing CO2 emissions induced by intra-urban shopping trips due to poor location by 54%, and if the consumer selected the closest of 8 existing stores, the CO2 emissions would be reduced by 37% of the current emission induced by NDG shopping trips.

Extra����o com CO2 supercr��tico de ��leos essenciais de Hon-sho e Ho-sho : experimentos e modelagem

Uma das tecnologias que mais avan��ou nas ��ltimas d��cadas, como uma alternativa para as tradicionais t��cnicas de extra����o de produtos naturais, �� a t��cnica de Extra����o com Fluidos Supercr��ticos. A extra����o com fluidos supercr��ticos destacase entre os processos industriais de extra����o pela qualidade dos produtos obtidos e por n��o causar danos ambientais quando usa di��xido de carbono (CO2) no estado supercr��tico como solvente. Este trabalho teve como objetivo a realiza����o de experimentos de extra����o de ��leos essenciais com di��xido de carbono no estado supercr��tico de folhas de duas variedades da ��rvore Canforeira (Cinnamomum camphor Ness & Eberm.) conhecidas como Hon-sho e Ho-sho, a fim de determinar as melhores condi����es operacionais de processo. Os ��leos essenciais obtidos destas plantas t��m import��ncia econ��mica devido aos seus principais componentes: linalol e c��nfora. Os melhores par��metros de extra����o obtidos, quando se consideram os rendimentos de ��leo essencial, foram os seguintes: vaz��o de CO2 = 2 mL/min, temperatura = 50��C, press��o = 90 bar e di��metro de part��cula = 0,1 mm. Outro objetivo foi a obten����o das curvas de extra����o: Rendimento de ��leo essencial versus Tempo de extra����o, adequando, a partir dos dados experimentais, alguns modelos matem��ticos encontrados na literatura para descrever o comportamento destas extra����es. Dos modelos estudados o que melhor se adequou �� extra����o de ��leos essenciais de folhas foi o modelo proposto por Reverchon (1996), o qual proporcionou uma boa reprodutibilidade dos dados experimentais, mostrandose eficiente na representa����o de extra����o com fluidos supercr��ticos de ��leos essenciais de Hon-sho e Ho-sho a partir de suas folhas.

Economia ecol��gica da emiss��o antropog��nica de CO2 - uma abordagem filos��fico-cient��fica sobre a efetua����o humana alopoi��tica da Terra em escala planet��ria

O objetivo desta tese, "Economia Ecol��gica da Emiss��o Antropog��nica de CO2 ��� uma Abordagem Filos��fico-Cient��fica sobre a Efetua����o Humana Alopoi��tica da Terra em Escala Planet��ria utiliza o novo paradigma ambiental, que inclui as seguintes ferramentas te��ricas originais: �� o uso da filosofia da efetua����o de Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775-1854); �� uso da teoria da auto-organiza����o para demonstrar a exist��ncia de uma efetua����o humana alopoi��tica de dimens��es geol��gico-planet��rias; �� a articula����o das implica����es filos��fico-cient��ficas em uma via de recorr��ncia que inclui a conting��ncia, a reprocessualidade, a ��tica e a hermen��utica, al��m das abordagens e estrat��gias da interdisciplinaridade e da transdisicplinaridade; �� uma nova estrutura de abordagem emp��rica para a coleta de dados ambientais, a matriz de amostragem ambiental. Nesta abordagem �� proposto o posicionamento da Epistemologia Ambiental levando em conta o aspecto unificador sist��mico, ap��s ser realizada a cr��tica das abordagens anarquista e p��s-normal. A Economia �� posta como antiexemplo no qual a Economia tradicional (Cl��ssica, Neocl��ssica e Ambiental) �� caracterizada como uma pseudoci��ncia, a partir das suas ilus��es, dogmas, mitos, fantasias, fal��cias, falsa "lei", falsas met��foras e o abandono da ��tica e da vis��o sist��mica, sendo suas afirmativas (falsas) comparadas com os resultados das demais ci��ncias e com a situa����o real do planeta Terra, no in��cio do s��culo XXI. O contraponto da Economia tradicional �� estabelecido pela apresenta����o dos conceitos de ecodesenvolvimento, sustentabilidade, estado-est��vel, Economia Win-Win e o advento da Era Solar. A Economia Ecol��gica constitui uma nova Ci��ncia Ambiental, passando atualmente por um processo de corrup����o economicista. A apresenta����o da efetua����o humana alopoi��tica �� feita em duas principais escalas: a geol��gica e planet��ria. A efetua����o humana alopoi��tica registrada em escala geol��gica inclui as seguintes formas: paisag��stica, pedog��nica, litol��gica, geodin��mica (s��smica, vulc��nica, h��drica, massiva e erosional), fossil��fera e geoqu��mica. A efetua����o humana alopoi��tica registrada em escala planet��ria apresenta as seguintes formas: clim��tica, aster��ide-meteor��tica, da biodiversidade, aeroespacial pr��xima e extraplanet��ria. A emiss��o antropog��nica de g��s carb��nico (CO2) na atmosfera terrestre, uma emiss��o difusa e sem fronteiras geogr��ficas, �� abordada com a Economia Ecol��gica. A partir da identifica����o do aquecimento global com "a conta entr��pica devida �� era da m��quina" (Rifkin, 1992, p. 81) que a Natureza apresenta aos seres humanos, �� feita a tentativa de estabelecer um valor real do fen��meno, tendo como ferramenta cient��fica a abordagem emerg��tica. A partir da constata����o de que a efetua����o humana alopoi��tica registrada at�� o final do s��culo XX foi realizada de forma imprevista, imprudente e fora de controle e tendo em vista a emerg��ncia da Era da Terra-P��tria, no in��cio do s��culo XXI, e a necessidade de reorientar a globaliza����o em curso, alternativas para a busca da efetua����o terrestre consciente s��o apresentadas. As principais alternativas propostas para resolver (ou encaminhar a resolu����o) para a quest��o ambiental s��o as economicistas, da qualidade ambiental total (ISO 14000), as industrialistas (produ����o limpa, fator 4, fator 10 e capitalismo natural), as cient��ficas (geofisiologia e terraforming), da Economia Ecol��gica e Economia Win-Win, as pol��ticas (Pol��tica da Biosfera e Plano Marshall Global), as ��ticas, a utopia do reencantamento do Mundo e a proposta program��tica da Agenda 21. As conclus��es e interpreta����es desta tese prov��m dos resultados obtidos pelo c��lculo da emiss��o de CO2 para a atmosfera, sua emergia e valor real atrav��s de dados obtidos na Internet e da contextualiza����o destes nas propostas existentes para o encaminhamento da quest��o ambiental. A mitologia de ��caro na tentativa ambiciosa em se afastar da Natureza e o retorno �� ela na forma de uma F��nix de ressurgimento autopoi��tico, fornece a vis��o do reenvolvimento ambiental humano.

Estudo e desenvolvimento de um sensor de CO2 de baixo custo

Este trabalho descreve um estudo e desenvolvimento de um sensor de di��xido de carbono (CO2), de baixo custo, para monitoramento da qualidade do ar em ambientes climatizados. O sensor aqui proposto baseia-se na t��cnica de absor����o em infravermelho n��o dispersivo (NDIR). Este trabalho avalia alguns m��todos j�� empregados e prop��e um modelo alternativo visando uma solu����o de baixo custo que possa ser incorporada a sistemas de monitoramento e/ou condicionamento existentes, permitindo o controle do teor de CO2. A metodologia inclui o estudo dos diferentes tipos de sensores de CO2, a sele����o da t��cnica mais apropriada para medi����o, o estudo das alternativas para implementa����o da t��cnica selecionada, o desenvolvimento, testes e avalia����es da solu����o. Especificamente desenvolveu-se uma solu����o em termos de sensor de CO2 que utiliza componentes comerciais, sendo facilmente reprodut��vel e de custo reduzido. O sensor desenvolvido tem faixa de medi����o entre 330 a mais de 10000 ppm, com resolu����o estimada em torno de 20 a 30 ppm, com erro em rela����o ao padr��o menor que 10% da medi����o ou 150 ppm,o que for maior.

Negocia����es internacionais dos mecanismos de redu����o de emiss��es e seq��estro de CO2: implica����es e potencialidades para o Brasil

Na disciplina eletiva T��picos Econ��micos em Meio Ambiente conheci o assunto referente ao mercado de cr��dito de carbono. Achei o tema muito interessante. Entendi que o mundo n��o poderia deixar de avan��ar nesta dire����o. Estudei e decidi verificar quais eram as oportunidades e ou dificuldade que o Brasil poderia experimentar no contexto das negocia����es internacionais a respeito deste assunto. Este trabalho n��o tem a pretens��o e nem o prop��sito de ser prescritivo, muito mesmo tornar-se parcial a algum ponto de vista. Ele procura reunir considera����es relevantes �� cerca do tema, proferida por autoridades que est��o �� frente dos processos de negocia����o decidindo os rumos deste assunto no Brasil e no mundo, confrontando com teorias recentes a respeito. Embora as mudan��as clim��ticas do mundo sejam fatos e, portanto, pouco se discorda neste sentido, quando se estuda as suas causas, conseq����ncias e como o Brasil pode ser inserido nas oportunidades ou ser impactado pelas dificuldades deste contexto, ai sim percebe-se que h�� diverg��ncias. Investiga-se ao longo do trabalho a combina����o dos interesses internacionais que embora claramente atrelados ao aspecto econ��mico usam toda sua habilidade pol��tica fazendo uso de argumentos t��cnicos para sustentar suas posi����es. O que me pareceu mais interessante neste trabalho �� que embora ainda existam d��vidas em rela����o a muitos pontos, o bom resultado destas negocia����es ser�� regido n��o por novas t��cnicas mais sim por um amadurecimento da humanidade com o desenvolvimento da habilidade pol��tica fundamentada na ��tica. Como todo estudo, ao final tem-se mais d��vida que no in��cio do trabalho. E este n��o �� diferente. Entretanto, a conclus��o sempre traz muito da percep����o do autor e nela me dei o direito de opinar de forma discreta, por��m com a propriedade de algu��m que estudou e refletiu sobre o tema.

Avalia����o do efeito de particulados s��lidos na efici��ncia de um inibidor de corros��o recomendado para meios salinos com CO2

The main problem on the exploration activity on petroleum industry is the formation water resulted on the fields producing. The aggravating of this problem is correlated with the advancing technologies used on the petroleum extractions and on its secondary approach objecting the reobtainment of this oil. Among the main contaminants of the water formation are corrosives gases such as: O2, CO2 and H2S, some solids in suspension and dissolved salts. Concerning to those gases the CO2 is the one that produce significant damage for carbon steel on corrosion process of the petroleum and gas industries. Corrosion inhibitors for carbon steel in formation water is one of the most used agents in control of those damages. In this context, the poor investigations of carbon steel corrosion proceeding from solids in suspension is an opened field for studies. On this work the inhibitor effect of the commercial CORRTREAT 703 was evaluated on some specific solids in suspension at saline medium containing 10.000 ppm of de-aerated chloride using CO2 until non oxygen atmosphere been present. For that, quartz, calcium carbonate, magnetite and iron sulphide were subjected to this investigation as the selected solids. The effect of this inhibitor on corrosion process correlated with those specific solids, was measured using electrochemical (resistance of linear polarization and galvanic pair) and gravimetrical techniques. During all the experimental work important parameters were monitored such as: pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature, instantaneous corrosion rate and galvanic current. According to the obtained results it was proved that the suspension solids calcium carbonate and iron sulphide decrease the corrosion process in higher pH medium. Meanwhile the quartz and magnetite been hardness increase corrosion by broking of the passive layer for erosion. In the other hand, the tested inhibitor in concentration of 50 ppm, showed to be effective (91%) in this corrosion process