Effect of calf purchase and other herd-level risk factors on mortality, unwanted early slaughter, and use of antimicrobial group treatments in Swiss veal calf operations.

The objective of this survey was to determine herd level risk factors for mortality, unwanted early slaughter, and metaphylactic application of antimicrobial group therapy in Swiss veal calves in 2013. A questionnaire regarding farm structure, farm management, mortality and antimicrobial use was sent to all farmers registered in a Swiss label program setting requirements for improved animal welfare and sustainability. Risk factors were determined by multivariable logistic regression. A total of 619 veal producers returned a useable questionnaire (response rate=28.5%), of which 40.9% only fattened their own calves (group O), 56.9% their own calves and additional purchased calves (group O&P), and 2.3% only purchased calves for fattening (group P). A total number of 19,077 calves entered the fattening units in 2013, of which 21.7%, 66.7%, and 11.6% belonged to groups O, O&P, and P, respectively. Mortality was 0% in 322 herds (52.0%), between 0% and 3% in 47 herds (7.6%), and ≥3% in 250 herds (40.4%). Significant risk factors for mortality were purchasing calves, herd size, higher incidence of BRD, and access to an outside pen. Metaphylaxis was used on 13.4% of the farms (7.9% only upon arrival, 4.4% only later in the fattening period, 1.1% upon arrival and later), in 3.2% of the herds of group O, 17.9% of those in group O&P, and 92.9% of those of group P. Application of metaphylaxis upon arrival was positively associated with purchase (OR=8.9) and herd size (OR=1.2 per 10 calves). Metaphylaxis later in the production cycle was positively associated with group size (OR=2.9) and risk of respiratory disease (OR=1.2 per 10% higher risk) and negatively with the use of individual antimicrobial treatment (OR=0.3). In many countries, purchase and a large herd size are inherently connected to veal production. The Swiss situation with large commercial but also smaller herds with little or no purchase of calves made it possible to investigate the effect of these factors on mortality and antimicrobial drug use. The results of this study show that a system where small farms raise the calves from their own herds has a substantial potential to improve animal health and reduce antimicrobial drug use.

Household health assessment and associated water sample analysis in the Miches watershed of the Dominican Republic

Background. Diarrhea and malnutrition are the leading causes of mortality for children age one to four in the Dominican Republic. Communities within the Miches watershed lack sanitation infrastructure and water purification systems, which increases the risk of exposure to water-borne pathogens. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to analyze health information gathered through household interviews and to test water samples for the presence of diarrheagenic pathogens and antibiotic-resistant bacteria within the Miches watershed. Methods. Frequency counts and thematic analysis were used to investigate Human Health Survey responses and Fisher's exact test was used to determine correlation between water source and reported illness. Bacteria cultured from water samples were analyzed by Gram stain, real-time PCR, API® 20E biochemical identification, and for antibiotic resistance. Results. Community members reported concerns about water sources with respect to water quality, availability, and environmental contamination. Pathogenic strains of E. coli were present in the water samples. Drinking aquifer water was positively-correlated with reported stomach aches (p=0.04) while drinking from rivers or creeks was associated with the reported absence of “gripe” (cold or flu) (p=0.01). The lack of association between reported illnesses and water source for the majority of variables suggested that there were multiple vehicles of disease transmission. Antibiotic resistant bacteria were isolated from the water samples tested. Conclusions. The presence of pathogenic E. coli in water samples suggested that water is at least one route of transmission for diarrheagenic pathogens in the Miches watershed. The presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the water samples may indicate the proliferation of resistance plasmids in the environment as a result of antibiotic overuse in human and animal populations and a lack of sanitation infrastructure. An intervention that targets areas of hygiene, sanitation, and water purification is recommended to limit human exposure to diarrheagenic pathogens and antibiotic-resistant organisms. ^

Dietary intake patterns and relationships to polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) and phthalate body burden

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and phthalates are chemicals of concern because of high levels measured in people and the environment as well as the demonstrated toxicity in animal studies and limited epidemiological studies. Exposure to these chemicals has been associated with a range of toxicological outcomes, including developmental effects, behavioral changes, endocrine disruption, effects on sexual health, and cancer. Previous research has shown that both of these classes of chemicals contaminate food in the United States and worldwide. However, how large a role diet plays in exposure to these chemicals is currently unknown. To address this question, an exploratory analysis of data collected as part of the 2003-04 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) was conducted. Associations between dietary intake (assessed by 24-hour dietary recalls) for a range of food types (meat, poultry, fish, and dairy) and levels PBDEs and phthalate metabolites were analyzed using multiple linear regression modeling. Levels of individual PBDE congeners 28, 47, 99, 100 as well as total PBDEs were found to be significantly associated with the consumption of poultry. Metabolites of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) were found to be associated with the consumption of poultry, as well as with an increased consumption of fat of animal origin. These results, combined with results from previous studies, suggest that diet is an important route of intake for both PBDEs and phthalates. Further research needs to be conducted to determine the sources of food contamination with these toxic chemicals as well as to describe the levels of contamination of US food in a large, representative sample.^

The relationship between enterotoxigenic {\it Escherichia coli\/} infection and environmental risk factors in Bilbeis, Egypt, 1981--1983

Diarrheal disease associated with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) infection is one of the major public health problems in many developing countries, especially in infants and young children. Because tests suitable for field laboratories have been developed only relatively recently, the literature on the environmental risk factors associated with ETEC is not as complete as for many other pathogens or for diarrhea of unspecified etiology.^ Data from a diarrheal disease surveillance project in rural Egypt in which stool samples were tested for a variety of pathogens, and in which an environmental questionnaire was completed for the same study households, provided an opportunity to test for an association between ETEC and various risk factors present in those households. ETEC laboratory-positive specimens were compared with ETEC laboratory-negative specimens for both symptomatic and asymptomatic children less than three years of age at the individual and household level using a case-comparison design.^ Individual children more likely to have LT infection were those who lived in HHs that had cooked food stored for subsequent consumption at the time of the visit, where caretakers used water but not soap to clean an infant after a diarrheal stool, and that had an indoor, private water source. LT was more common in HHs where the caretaker did not clean an infant with soap after a diarrheal stool, and where a sleeping infant was not covered with a net. At both the individual and HH level, LT was significantly associated with good water supply in terms of quantity and storage.^ ST was isolated more frequently at the individual level where a sleeping infant was covered with a net, where large animals were kept in or around the house, where water was always available and was not potable, and where the water container was not covered. At the HH level, the absence of a toilet or latrine and the indiscriminate disposal of animal waste decreased risk. Using animal feces for fertilizer, the presence of large animals, and poor water quality were associated with ST at both the individual and HH level.^ These findings are mostly consistent with those of other studies, and/or are biologically plausible, with the obvious exception of those from this study where poorer water supplies are associated with less infection, at least in the case of LT. More direct observation of how animal ownership and feces disposal relates to different types of water supply and usage might clarify mechanisms through which some ETEC infection could be prevented in similar settings. ^

Feeding practices and their associations with diarrhea incidence in a cohort of rural Egyptian infants

A study was conducted in 4 villages in Bilbeis, Egypt, to document the infant feeding practices and identify their determinants, and examine the associations between feeding practices and diarrhea incidence in infants. A cohort of 152 infants were followed from birth with twice-weekly home visits to record feeding practices and diarrheal illness. Cross-sectional information was obtained about child birth; early neonatal feeding practices; and the socioeconomic, demographic, and water and sanitation characteristics of study families.^ Prelacteal fees were given to 60% of the infants. Nineteen percent of the infants were wet nursed at least once during the first week of life. Breast-feeding prevalence declined from 100% among infants aged less than 12 weeks to 84% among those aged 44-47 weeks. The prevalence of exclusive breast-feeding among breast-fed infants was 38% in those aged less than 4 weeks, increased to 54% in age period 4-7 weeks, and then declined rapidly to 4% in age period 24-27 weeks. The patterns and determinants of consumption by breast-fed infants of specific supplements were examined in detail.^ Between birth and age 47 weeks, the diarrhea incidence rate per person-year among breast-fed infants (6.84 episodes) was identical to the rate among all infants (6.89 episodes). In age period 0-11 weeks, the diarrhea incidence rate among breast-fed infants receiving supplements was 1.3 times (95% confidence interval: 0.9-2.0) higher than the rate among those exclusively breast-fed. In other age periods, diarrhea incidence was generally nonsignificantly higher among exclusively breast-fed infants than among those partially breast-fed and those completely weaned.^ Both univariate and multivariate analyses were done to examine the associations between diarrhea incidence and the consumption by breast-fed infants of specific supplements. After multivariate adjustment, supplements that showed significant, borderline, or suggestive positive associations with diarrhea incidence were cereal-water, cheese, raw vegetables, and 'other' foods. Significant, borderline, or suggestive negative associations were observed between diarrhea incidence and the intake of fresh animal milk, and potatoes.^ To reduce the risk of diarrhea, indiscriminate use of supplements among Bilbeis infants aged less than 12 weeks should be strongly discouraged. While mothers in this area should be educated about methods of safer preparation, handling, storage, and administration of all weaning foods, their attention should be particularly drawn to the 4 foods that were found to be positively associated with diarrhea incidence among infants in this study. ^

Differential stress response and susceptibility to oxidative injury in alveolar macrophages from C57BL/6J and C3H/HeJ mice following oxidant exposure

Studies have demonstrated a variable response to ozone among individuals and animal species and strains. For instance, C57BL/6J mice have a greater inflammatory response to ozone exposure than C3H/HeJ mice. In these studies, I utilized these strain differences in an effort to derive a mechanistic explanation to the variable strain sensitivity to ozone exposure. Therefore, alveolar macrophages (AM) from C57BL/6J and C3H/HeJ mice were exposed in vitro to hydrogen peroxide ($\rm H\sb2O\sb2$), heat and acetyl ceramide or in vivo to ozone. Necrosis and DNA fragmentation in macrophages from the two murine strains were determined to assess cytotoxicity following these treatments. In addition, synthesis and expression of the stress proteins, stress protein 72 (SP72) and heme oxygenase (HO-1), were examined following treatments. The in vitro experiments were conducted to eliminate the possibility of in vivo confounders (i.e., differences in breathing rates in the two strains) and thus directly implicate some inherent difference between cells from the two murine strains. $\rm H\sb2O\sb2$ and heat caused greater cytotoxicity in AM from C57BL/6J than C3H/HeJ mice and DNA fragmentation was a particularly sensitive indicator of cell injury. Similarly, AM from C57BL/6J mice were more sensitive to ozone exposure than cells from C3H/HeJ mice. Exposure to either 1 or 0.4 ppm ozone caused greater cytotoxicity in macrophages from C57BL/6J mice compared to macrophages from C3H/HeJ mice. The increased sensitivity of AM to injury was associated with decreased synthesis and expression of stress proteins. AM from C57BL/6J mice synthesized and expressed significantly less stress proteins in response to heat and ozone than AM from C3H/HeJ mice. Heat treatment resulted in greater synthesis and expression of SP72. In addition, macrophages from C57BL/6J mice expressed lower amounts of HO-1 than macrophages from C3H/HeJ mice following 0.4 ppm ozone exposure. Therefore, AM from C57BL/6J mice are more susceptible to oxidative injury than AM from C3H/HeJ mice which might be due to differential expression of stress proteins in these cells. ^

THE DISCHARGED PSYCHIATRIC PATIENT: POST-HOSPITAL ADJUSTMENT AND FACTORS AFFECTING REHOSPITALIZATION

Discharged psychiatric patients were studied six months post-discharge to determine those demographic, social and clinical characteristics affecting positive or negative adjustment and the degree to which the use of mental health services and medication compliance mediated the effects. With the exception of those with primary or secondary diagnoses of OBS, substance abuse or mental retardation, sixty-three psychiatric subjects between the ages of eighteen and sixty-four were chosen from all admissions into the hospital and interviewed six months after discharge using a specially designed questionnaire.^ The subjects' adjustment to community living was found to be marginal. Although not engaged in destructive activities, over half were living with their family members who supported them financially and emotionally. Most were unemployed and had been so for a long time. Others worked sporadically and frequently changed residences. Most did have substantial social ties with extended family and with friends with whom they interacted regularly, but one-fourth were socially isolated. Almost three-quarters continued to obtain regular mental health services after discharge and followed medication instructions under the supervision of their physician. The use of mental health services after discharge and the use of medication did not appear to affect the subjects' community adaption or their rate of rehospitalization.^ Forty percent of those discharged were rehospitalized by the end of the follow-up period. Four levels of risk of rehospitalization emerged. The highest risk was associated with a history of five or more prior hospitalizations, living alone, and social isolation. One third or more of the subjects expressed a need for more counseling, leisure time activities, case-manager assistance, vocational guidance, supervised housing, and placement into a transitional residential treatment program.^ Recommendations were made to enhance the ability to predict recidivism, to develop interorganizational casework management programs linking the patient and family to the community mental health system and to create computerized tracking and monitoring programs that systematically report patient treatment regimen and progress cross-sectionally and longitudinally. ^

A characterisation of passive and active interactions and their influence on student's achievement using Moodle LMS Logs

During the last years, there has been much concern about learning management systems' (LMS) effectiveness when compared to traditional learning and about how to assess students' participation during the course. The tracking and monitoring capabilities of most recent LMS have made it possible to analyse every interaction in the system. The issues addressed on this study are: a) Is LMS student's interaction an indicator of academic performance?; b) Are different results in performance expected between distance and in-class LMS-supported education?; c) How can LMS interactions from logs be categorised?; d) May this categorisation detect 'learning witnesses'? To answer these questions, a set of interaction types from Moodle LMS activity record logs has been analysed during two years in online and in-class Master's degrees at the UPM. The results show partial or no evidence of influence between interaction indicators and academic performance, although the proposed categorisation may help detect learning witnesses.

Applications for wireless sensor networks : tracking with binary proximity sensors

El interés cada vez mayor por las redes de sensores inalámbricos pueden ser entendido simplemente pensando en lo que esencialmente son: un gran número de pequeños nodos sensores autoalimentados que recogen información o detectan eventos especiales y se comunican de manera inalámbrica, con el objetivo final de entregar sus datos procesados a una estación base. Los nodos sensores están densamente desplegados dentro del área de interés, se pueden desplegar al azar y tienen capacidad de cooperación. Por lo general, estos dispositivos son pequeños y de bajo costo, de modo que pueden ser producidos y desplegados en gran numero aunque sus recursos en términos de energía, memoria, velocidad de cálculo y ancho de banda están enormemente limitados. Detección, tratamiento y comunicación son tres elementos clave cuya combinación en un pequeño dispositivo permite lograr un gran número de aplicaciones. Las redes de sensores proporcionan oportunidades sin fin, pero al mismo tiempo plantean retos formidables, tales como lograr el máximo rendimiento de una energía que es escasa y por lo general un recurso no renovable. Sin embargo, los recientes avances en la integración a gran escala, integrado de hardware de computación, comunicaciones, y en general, la convergencia de la informática y las comunicaciones, están haciendo de esta tecnología emergente una realidad. Del mismo modo, los avances en la nanotecnología están empezando a hacer que todo gire entorno a las redes de pequeños sensores y actuadores distribuidos. Hay diferentes tipos de sensores tales como sensores de presión, acelerómetros, cámaras, sensores térmicos o un simple micrófono. Supervisan las condiciones presentes en diferentes lugares tales como la temperatura, humedad, el movimiento, la luminosidad, presión, composición del suelo, los niveles de ruido, la presencia o ausencia de ciertos tipos de objetos, los niveles de tensión mecánica sobre objetos adheridos y las características momentáneas tales como la velocidad , la dirección y el tamaño de un objeto, etc. Se comprobara el estado de las Redes Inalámbricas de Sensores y se revisaran los protocolos más famosos. Así mismo, se examinara la identificación por radiofrecuencia (RFID) ya que se está convirtiendo en algo actual y su presencia importante. La RFID tiene un papel crucial que desempeñar en el futuro en el mundo de los negocios y los individuos por igual. El impacto mundial que ha tenido la identificación sin cables está ejerciendo fuertes presiones en la tecnología RFID, los servicios de investigación y desarrollo, desarrollo de normas, el cumplimiento de la seguridad y la privacidad y muchos más. Su potencial económico se ha demostrado en algunos países mientras que otros están simplemente en etapas de planificación o en etapas piloto, pero aun tiene que afianzarse o desarrollarse a través de la modernización de los modelos de negocio y aplicaciones para poder tener un mayor impacto en la sociedad. Las posibles aplicaciones de redes de sensores son de interés para la mayoría de campos. La monitorización ambiental, la guerra, la educación infantil, la vigilancia, la micro-cirugía y la agricultura son solo unos pocos ejemplos de los muchísimos campos en los que tienen cabida las redes mencionadas anteriormente. Estados Unidos de América es probablemente el país que más ha investigado en esta área por lo que veremos muchas soluciones propuestas provenientes de ese país. Universidades como Berkeley, UCLA (Universidad de California, Los Ángeles) Harvard y empresas como Intel lideran dichas investigaciones. Pero no solo EE.UU. usa e investiga las redes de sensores inalámbricos. La Universidad de Southampton, por ejemplo, está desarrollando una tecnología para monitorear el comportamiento de los glaciares mediante redes de sensores que contribuyen a la investigación fundamental en glaciología y de las redes de sensores inalámbricos. Así mismo, Coalesenses GmbH (Alemania) y Zurich ETH están trabajando en diversas aplicaciones para redes de sensores inalámbricos en numerosas áreas. Una solución española será la elegida para ser examinada más a fondo por ser innovadora, adaptable y polivalente. Este estudio del sensor se ha centrado principalmente en aplicaciones de tráfico, pero no se puede olvidar la lista de más de 50 aplicaciones diferentes que ha sido publicada por la firma creadora de este sensor específico. En la actualidad hay muchas tecnologías de vigilancia de vehículos, incluidos los sensores de bucle, cámaras de video, sensores de imagen, sensores infrarrojos, radares de microondas, GPS, etc. El rendimiento es aceptable, pero no suficiente, debido a su limitada cobertura y caros costos de implementación y mantenimiento, especialmente este ultimo. Tienen defectos tales como: línea de visión, baja exactitud, dependen mucho del ambiente y del clima, no se puede realizar trabajos de mantenimiento sin interrumpir las mediciones, la noche puede condicionar muchos de ellos, tienen altos costos de instalación y mantenimiento, etc. Por consiguiente, en las aplicaciones reales de circulación, los datos recibidos son insuficientes o malos en términos de tiempo real debido al escaso número de detectores y su costo. Con el aumento de vehículos en las redes viales urbanas las tecnologías de detección de vehículos se enfrentan a nuevas exigencias. Las redes de sensores inalámbricos son actualmente una de las tecnologías más avanzadas y una revolución en la detección de información remota y en las aplicaciones de recogida. Las perspectivas de aplicación en el sistema inteligente de transporte son muy amplias. Con este fin se ha desarrollado un programa de localización de objetivos y recuento utilizando una red de sensores binarios. Esto permite que el sensor necesite mucha menos energía durante la transmisión de información y que los dispositivos sean más independientes con el fin de tener un mejor control de tráfico. La aplicación se centra en la eficacia de la colaboración de los sensores en el seguimiento más que en los protocolos de comunicación utilizados por los nodos sensores. Las operaciones de salida y retorno en las vacaciones son un buen ejemplo de por qué es necesario llevar la cuenta de los coches en las carreteras. Para ello se ha desarrollado una simulación en Matlab con el objetivo localizar objetivos y contarlos con una red de sensores binarios. Dicho programa se podría implementar en el sensor que Libelium, la empresa creadora del sensor que se examinara concienzudamente, ha desarrollado. Esto permitiría que el aparato necesitase mucha menos energía durante la transmisión de información y los dispositivos sean más independientes. Los prometedores resultados obtenidos indican que los sensores de proximidad binarios pueden formar la base de una arquitectura robusta para la vigilancia de áreas amplias y para el seguimiento de objetivos. Cuando el movimiento de dichos objetivos es suficientemente suave, no tiene cambios bruscos de trayectoria, el algoritmo ClusterTrack proporciona un rendimiento excelente en términos de identificación y seguimiento de trayectorias los objetos designados como blancos. Este algoritmo podría, por supuesto, ser utilizado para numerosas aplicaciones y se podría seguir esta línea de trabajo para futuras investigaciones. No es sorprendente que las redes de sensores de binarios de proximidad hayan atraído mucha atención últimamente ya que, a pesar de la información mínima de un sensor de proximidad binario proporciona, las redes de este tipo pueden realizar un seguimiento de todo tipo de objetivos con la precisión suficiente. Abstract The increasing interest in wireless sensor networks can be promptly understood simply by thinking about what they essentially are: a large number of small sensing self-powered nodes which gather information or detect special events and communicate in a wireless fashion, with the end goal of handing their processed data to a base station. The sensor nodes are densely deployed inside the phenomenon, they deploy random and have cooperative capabilities. Usually these devices are small and inexpensive, so that they can be produced and deployed in large numbers, and so their resources in terms of energy, memory, computational speed and bandwidth are severely constrained. Sensing, processing and communication are three key elements whose combination in one tiny device gives rise to a vast number of applications. Sensor networks provide endless opportunities, but at the same time pose formidable challenges, such as the fact that energy is a scarce and usually non-renewable resource. However, recent advances in low power Very Large Scale Integration, embedded computing, communication hardware, and in general, the convergence of computing and communications, are making this emerging technology a reality. Likewise, advances in nanotechnology and Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems are pushing toward networks of tiny distributed sensors and actuators. There are different sensors such as pressure, accelerometer, camera, thermal, and microphone. They monitor conditions at different locations, such as temperature, humidity, vehicular movement, lightning condition, pressure, soil makeup, noise levels, the presence or absence of certain kinds of objects, mechanical stress levels on attached objects, the current characteristics such as speed, direction and size of an object, etc. The state of Wireless Sensor Networks will be checked and the most famous protocols reviewed. As Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is becoming extremely present and important nowadays, it will be examined as well. RFID has a crucial role to play in business and for individuals alike going forward. The impact of ‘wireless’ identification is exerting strong pressures in RFID technology and services research and development, standards development, security compliance and privacy, and many more. The economic value is proven in some countries while others are just on the verge of planning or in pilot stages, but the wider spread of usage has yet to take hold or unfold through the modernisation of business models and applications. Possible applications of sensor networks are of interest to the most diverse fields. Environmental monitoring, warfare, child education, surveillance, micro-surgery, and agriculture are only a few examples. Some real hardware applications in the United States of America will be checked as it is probably the country that has investigated most in this area. Universities like Berkeley, UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) Harvard and enterprises such as Intel are leading those investigations. But not just USA has been using and investigating wireless sensor networks. University of Southampton e.g. is to develop technology to monitor glacier behaviour using sensor networks contributing to fundamental research in glaciology and wireless sensor networks. Coalesenses GmbH (Germany) and ETH Zurich are working in applying wireless sensor networks in many different areas too. A Spanish solution will be the one examined more thoroughly for being innovative, adaptable and multipurpose. This study of the sensor has been focused mainly to traffic applications but it cannot be forgotten the more than 50 different application compilation that has been published by this specific sensor’s firm. Currently there are many vehicle surveillance technologies including loop sensors, video cameras, image sensors, infrared sensors, microwave radar, GPS, etc. The performance is acceptable but not sufficient because of their limited coverage and expensive costs of implementation and maintenance, specially the last one. They have defects such as: line-ofsight, low exactness, depending on environment and weather, cannot perform no-stop work whether daytime or night, high costs for installation and maintenance, etc. Consequently, in actual traffic applications the received data is insufficient or bad in terms of real-time owed to detector quantity and cost. With the increase of vehicle in urban road networks, the vehicle detection technologies are confronted with new requirements. Wireless sensor network is the state of the art technology and a revolution in remote information sensing and collection applications. It has broad prospect of application in intelligent transportation system. An application for target tracking and counting using a network of binary sensors has been developed. This would allow the appliance to spend much less energy when transmitting information and to make more independent devices in order to have a better traffic control. The application is focused on the efficacy of collaborative tracking rather than on the communication protocols used by the sensor nodes. Holiday crowds are a good case in which it is necessary to keep count of the cars on the roads. To this end a Matlab simulation has been produced for target tracking and counting using a network of binary sensors that e.g. could be implemented in Libelium’s solution. Libelium is the enterprise that has developed the sensor that will be deeply examined. This would allow the appliance to spend much less energy when transmitting information and to make more independent devices. The promising results obtained indicate that binary proximity sensors can form the basis for a robust architecture for wide area surveillance and tracking. When the target paths are smooth enough ClusterTrack particle filter algorithm gives excellent performance in terms of identifying and tracking different target trajectories. This algorithm could, of course, be used for different applications and that could be done in future researches. It is not surprising that binary proximity sensor networks have attracted a lot of attention lately. Despite the minimal information a binary proximity sensor provides, networks of these sensing modalities can track all kinds of different targets classes accurate enough.

Novel Inductor‐less Conversion Strategy Based on Multiphase Transformer‐Coupled Converters: Analysis, Design and Applications

There are many the requirements that modern power converters should fulfill. Most of the applications where these converters are used, demand smaller converters with high efficiency, improved power density and a fast dynamic response. For instance, loads like microprocessors demand aggressive current steps with very high slew rates (100A/mus and higher); besides, during these load steps, the supply voltage of the microprocessor should be kept within tight limits in order to ensure its correct performance. The accomplishment of these requirements is not an easy task; complex solutions like advanced topologies - such as multiphase converters- as well as advanced control strategies are often needed. Besides, it is also necessary to operate the converter at high switching frequencies and to use capacitors with high capacitance and low ESR. Improving the dynamic response of power converters does not rely only on the control strategy but also the power topology should be suited to enable a fast dynamic response. Moreover, in later years, a fast dynamic response does not only mean accomplishing fast load steps but output voltage steps are gaining importance as well. At least, two applications that require fast voltage changes can be named: Low power microprocessors. In these devices, the voltage supply is changed according to the workload and the operating frequency of the microprocessor is changed at the same time. An important reduction in voltage dependent losses can be achieved with such changes. This technique is known as Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS). Another application where important energy savings can be achieved by means of changing the supply voltage are Radio Frequency Power Amplifiers. For example, RF architectures based on ‘Envelope Tracking’ and ‘Envelope Elimination and Restoration’ techniques can take advantage of voltage supply modulation and accomplish important energy savings in the power amplifier. However, in order to achieve these efficiency improvements, a power converter with high efficiency and high enough bandwidth (hundreds of kHz or even tens of MHz) is necessary in order to ensure an adequate supply voltage. The main objective of this Thesis is to improve the dynamic response of DC-DC converters from the point of view of the power topology. And the term dynamic response refers both to the load steps and the voltage steps; it is also interesting to modulate the output voltage of the converter with a specific bandwidth. In order to accomplish this, the question of what is it that limits the dynamic response of power converters should be answered. Analyzing this question leads to the conclusion that the dynamic response is limited by the power topology and specifically, by the filter inductance of the converter which is found in series between the input and the output of the converter. The series inductance is the one that determines the gain of the converter and provides the regulation capability. Although the energy stored in the filter inductance enables the regulation and the capability of filtering the output voltage, it imposes a limitation which is the concern of this Thesis. The series inductance stores energy and prevents the current from changing in a fast way, limiting the slew rate of the current through this inductor. Different solutions are proposed in the literature in order to reduce the limit imposed by the filter inductor. Many publications proposing new topologies and improvements to known topologies can be found in the literature. Also, complex control strategies are proposed with the objective of improving the dynamic response in power converters. In the proposed topologies, the energy stored in the series inductor is reduced; examples of these topologies are Multiphase converters, Buck converter operating at very high frequency or adding a low impedance path in parallel with the series inductance. Control techniques proposed in the literature, focus on adjusting the output voltage as fast as allowed by the power stage; examples of these control techniques are: hysteresis control, V 2 control, and minimum time control. In some of the proposed topologies, a reduction in the value of the series inductance is achieved and with this, the energy stored in this magnetic element is reduced; less stored energy means a faster dynamic response. However, in some cases (as in the high frequency Buck converter), the dynamic response is improved at the cost of worsening the efficiency. In this Thesis, a drastic solution is proposed: to completely eliminate the series inductance of the converter. This is a more radical solution when compared to those proposed in the literature. If the series inductance is eliminated, the regulation capability of the converter is limited which can make it difficult to use the topology in one-converter solutions; however, this topology is suitable for power architectures where the energy conversion is done by more than one converter. When the series inductor is eliminated from the converter, the current slew rate is no longer limited and it can be said that the dynamic response of the converter is independent from the switching frequency. This is the main advantage of eliminating the series inductor. The main objective, is to propose an energy conversion strategy that is done without series inductance. Without series inductance, no energy is stored between the input and the output of the converter and the dynamic response would be instantaneous if all the devices were ideal. If the energy transfer from the input to the output of the converter is done instantaneously when a load step occurs, conceptually it would not be necessary to store energy at the output of the converter (no output capacitor COUT would be needed) and if the input source is ideal, the input capacitor CIN would not be necessary. This last feature (no CIN with ideal VIN) is common to all power converters. However, when the concept is actually implemented, parasitic inductances such as leakage inductance of the transformer and the parasitic inductance of the PCB, cannot be avoided because they are inherent to the implementation of the converter. These parasitic elements do not affect significantly to the proposed concept. In this Thesis, it is proposed to operate the converter without series inductance in order to improve the dynamic response of the converter; however, on the other side, the continuous regulation capability of the converter is lost. It is said continuous because, as it will be explained throughout the Thesis, it is indeed possible to achieve discrete regulation; a converter without filter inductance and without energy stored in the magnetic element, is capable to achieve a limited number of output voltages. The changes between these output voltage levels are achieved in a fast way. The proposed energy conversion strategy is implemented by means of a multiphase converter where the coupling of the phases is done by discrete two-winding transformers instead of coupledinductors since transformers are, ideally, no energy storing elements. This idea is the main contribution of this Thesis. The feasibility of this energy conversion strategy is first analyzed and then verified by simulation and by the implementation of experimental prototypes. Once the strategy is proved valid, different options to implement the magnetic structure are analyzed. Three different discrete transformer arrangements are studied and implemented. A converter based on this energy conversion strategy would be designed with a different approach than the one used to design classic converters since an additional design degree of freedom is available. The switching frequency can be chosen according to the design specifications without penalizing the dynamic response or the efficiency. Low operating frequencies can be chosen in order to favor the efficiency; on the other hand, high operating frequencies (MHz) can be chosen in order to favor the size of the converter. For this reason, a particular design procedure is proposed for the ‘inductorless’ conversion strategy. Finally, applications where the features of the proposed conversion strategy (high efficiency with fast dynamic response) are advantageus, are proposed. For example, in two-stage power architectures where a high efficiency converter is needed as the first stage and there is a second stage that provides the fine regulation. Another example are RF power amplifiers where the voltage is modulated following an envelope reference in order to save power; in this application, a high efficiency converter, capable of achieving fast voltage steps is required. The main contributions of this Thesis are the following: The proposal of a conversion strategy that is done, ideally, without storing energy in the magnetic element. The validation and the implementation of the proposed energy conversion strategy. The study of different magnetic structures based on discrete transformers for the implementation of the proposed energy conversion strategy. To elaborate and validate a design procedure. To identify and validate applications for the proposed energy conversion strategy. It is important to remark that this work is done in collaboration with Intel. The particular features of the proposed conversion strategy enable the possibility of solving the problems related to microprocessor powering in a different way. For example, the high efficiency achieved with the proposed conversion strategy enables it as a good candidate to be used for power conditioning, as a first stage in a two-stage power architecture for powering microprocessors.

Urbanization, socio-economic changes and population growth in Brazil: dietary shifts and environmental implications.

Population growth, economic globalization, improving living standards and urbanization are causing important changes in the global food system and modifying the dietary habits in many parts of the world (Molden, 2007; Godfray et al., 2010). The nutritional transition (linked to the development of countries and the increasing wealth of its population) implies a shift away from traditional staple food such as roots and tuber vegetables and a rise in consumption of meat and milk products, refined and processed foods, as well as sugars, oils and fats (Ambler-Edwards et al., 2009). The contemporary food system puts significant pressure on natural resources, especially on land and water, because the growing food demand pushes the agricultural frontier beyond, causing large impacts on ecosystems (Ambler-Edwards et al. 2009: 11-18). Also, the trend towards richer diets in animal proteins and processed food adds further pressure on the environment, since it requires larger amount of water and land to be produced (Allan, 2011; Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2012).

Effects of the ruminal comminution rate and microbial contamination of particles on accuracy of in situ estimates of ruminal degradability and intestinal digestibility of feedstuffs.

Effects of considering the comminution rate -kc- and the correction of microbial contamination -using 15N techniques- of particles in the rumen on estimates of ruminally undegraded fractions and their intestinal digestibility were examined generating composite samples -from rumen-incubated residues- representative of the undegraded feed rumen outflow. The study used sunflower meal -SFM- and Italian ryegrass hay -RGH- and three rumen and duodenum cannulated wethers fed with a 40:60 RGH to concentrate diet -75 g DM/kgBW0.75-. Transit studies up to the duodenum with Yb-SFM and Eu-RGH marked samples showed higher kc values -/h- in SFM than in RGH -0.577 vs. 0.0892, p = 0.034-, whereas similar values occurred for the rumen passage rate -kp-. Estimates of ruminally undegraded and intestinal digestibility of all tested fractions decreased when kc was considered and also applying microbial correction. Thus, microbial uncorrected kp-based proportions of intestinal digested undegraded crude protein overestimated those corrected and kc-kp-based by 39% in SFM -0.146 vs. 0.105- and 761% in RGH -0.373 vs. 0.0433-. Results show that both kc and microbial contamination correction should be considered to obtain accurate in situ estimates in grasses, whereas in protein concentrates not considering kc is an important source of error.

Dopamine receptor 4 promoter polymorphism modulates memory and neuronal responses to salience

Animal models and human functional imaging data implicate the dopamine system in mediating enhanced encoding of novel stimuli into human memory. A separate line of investigation suggests an association between a functional polymorphism in the promoter region for the human dopamine 4 receptor gene (DRD4) and sensitivity to novelty. We demonstrate, in two independent samples, that the -521Cmayor queT DRD4 promoter polymorphism determines the magnitude of human memory enhancement for contextually novel, perceptual oddball stimuli in an allele dose-dependent manner. The genotype-dependent memory enhancement conferred by the C allele is associated with increased neuronal responses during successful encoding of perceptual oddballs in the ventral striatum, an effect which is again allele dose-dependent. Furthermore, with repeated presentations of oddball stimuli, this memory advantage decreases, an effect mirrored by adaptation of activation in the hippocampus and substantia nigra/ventral tegmental area in C carriers only. Thus, a dynamic modulation of human memory enhancement for perceptually salient stimuli is associated with activation of a dopaminergic-hippocampal system, which is critically dependent on a functional polymorphism in the DRD4 promoter region.

High Efficiency Envelope Amplifier based on a Ripple Cancellation Buck Converter. Design, Optimization and Integration in an EER RFPA

Durante los últimos años la tendencia en el sector de las telecomunicaciones ha sido un aumento y diversificación en la transmisión de voz, video y fundamentalmente de datos. Para conseguir alcanzar las tasas de transmisión requeridas, los nuevos estándares de comunicaciones requieren un mayor ancho de banda y tienen un mayor factor de pico, lo cual influye en el bajo rendimiento del amplificador de radiofrecuencia (RFPA). Otro factor que ha influido en el bajo rendimiento es el diseño del amplificador de radiofrecuencia. Tradicionalmente se han utilizado amplificadores lineales por su buen funcionamiento. Sin embargo, debido al elevado factor de pico de las señales transmitidas, el rendimiento de este tipo de amplificadores es bajo. El bajo rendimiento del sistema conlleva desventajas adicionales como el aumento del coste y del tamaño del sistema de refrigeración, como en el caso de una estación base, o como la reducción del tiempo de uso y un mayor calentamiento del equipo para sistemas portátiles alimentados con baterías. Debido a estos factores, se han desarrollado durante las últimas décadas varias soluciones para aumentar el rendimiento del RFPA como la técnica de Outphasing, combinadores de potencia o la técnica de Doherty. Estas soluciones mejoran las prestaciones del RFPA y en algún caso han sido ampliamente utilizados comercialmente como la técnica de Doherty, que alcanza rendimientos hasta del 50% para el sistema completo para anchos de banda de hasta 20MHz. Pese a las mejoras obtenidas con estas soluciones, los mayores rendimientos del sistema se obtienen para soluciones basadas en la modulación de la tensión de alimentación del amplificador de potencia como “Envelope Tracking” o “EER”. La técnica de seguimiento de envolvente o “Envelope Tracking” está basada en la modulación de la tensión de alimentación de un amplificador lineal de potencia para obtener una mejora en el rendimiento en el sistema comparado a una solución con una tensión de alimentación constante. Para la implementación de esta técnica se necesita una etapa adicional, el amplificador de envolvente, que añade complejidad al amplificador de radiofrecuencia. En un amplificador diseñado con esta técnica, se aumentan las pérdidas debido a la etapa adicional que supone el amplificador de envolvente pero a su vez disminuyen las pérdidas en el amplificador de potencia. Si el diseño se optimiza adecuadamente, puede conseguirse un aumento global en el rendimiento del sistema superior al conseguido con las técnicas mencionadas anteriormente. Esta técnica presenta ventajas en el diseño del amplificador de envolvente, ya que el ancho de banda requerido puede ser menor que el ancho de banda de la señal de envolvente si se optimiza adecuadamente el diseño. Adicionalmente, debido a que la sincronización entre la señal de envolvente y de fase no tiene que ser perfecta, el proceso de integración conlleva ciertas ventajas respecto a otras técnicas como EER. La técnica de eliminación y restauración de envolvente, llamada EER o técnica de Kahn está basada en modulación simultánea de la envolvente y la fase de la señal usando un amplificador de potencia conmutado, no lineal y que permite obtener un elevado rendimiento. Esta solución fue propuesta en el año 1952, pero no ha sido implementada con éxito durante muchos años debido a los exigentes requerimientos en cuanto a la sincronización entre fase y envolvente, a las técnicas de control y de corrección de los errores y no linealidades de cada una de las etapas así como de los equipos para poder implementar estas técnicas, que tienen unos requerimientos exigentes en capacidad de cálculo y procesamiento. Dentro del diseño de un RFPA, el amplificador de envolvente tiene una gran importancia debido a su influencia en el rendimiento y ancho de banda del sistema completo. Adicionalmente, la linealidad y la calidad de la señal de transmitida deben ser elevados para poder cumplir con los diferentes estándares de telecomunicaciones. Esta tesis se centra en el amplificador de envolvente y el objetivo principal es el desarrollo de soluciones que permitan el aumento del rendimiento total del sistema a la vez que satisfagan los requerimientos de ancho de banda, calidad de la señal transmitida y de linealidad. Debido al elevado rendimiento que potencialmente puede alcanzarse con la técnica de EER, esta técnica ha sido objeto de análisis y en el estado del arte pueden encontrarse numerosas referencias que analizan el diseño y proponen diversas implementaciones. En una clasificación de alto nivel, podemos agrupar las soluciones propuestas del amplificador de envolvente según estén compuestas de una o múltiples etapas. Las soluciones para el amplificador de envolvente en una configuración multietapa se basan en la combinación de un convertidor conmutado, de elevado rendimiento con un regulador lineal, de alto ancho de banda, en una combinación serie o paralelo. Estas soluciones, debido a la combinación de las características de ambas etapas, proporcionan un buen compromiso entre rendimiento y buen funcionamiento del amplificador de RF. Por otro lado, la complejidad del sistema aumenta debido al mayor número de componentes y de señales de control necesarias y el aumento de rendimiento que se consigue con estas soluciones es limitado. Una configuración en una etapa tiene las ventajas de una mayor simplicidad, pero debido al elevado ancho de banda necesario, la frecuencia de conmutación debe aumentarse en gran medida. Esto implicará un bajo rendimiento y un peor funcionamiento del amplificador de envolvente. En el estado del arte pueden encontrarse diversas soluciones para un amplificador de envolvente en una etapa, como aumentar la frecuencia de conmutación y realizar la implementación en un circuito integrado, que tendrá mejor funcionamiento a altas frecuencias o utilizar técnicas topológicas y/o filtros de orden elevado, que permiten una reducción de la frecuencia de conmutación. En esta tesis se propone de manera original el uso de la técnica de cancelación de rizado, aplicado al convertidor reductor síncrono, para reducir la frecuencia de conmutación comparado con diseño equivalente del convertidor reductor convencional. Adicionalmente se han desarrollado dos variantes topológicas basadas en esta solución para aumentar la robustez y las prestaciones de la misma. Otro punto de interés en el diseño de un RFPA es la dificultad de poder estimar la influencia de los parámetros de diseño del amplificador de envolvente en el amplificador final integrado. En esta tesis se ha abordado este problema y se ha desarrollado una herramienta de diseño que permite obtener las principales figuras de mérito del amplificador integrado para la técnica de EER a partir del diseño del amplificador de envolvente. Mediante el uso de esta herramienta pueden validarse el efecto del ancho de banda, el rizado de tensión de salida o las no linealidades del diseño del amplificador de envolvente para varias modulaciones digitales. Las principales contribuciones originales de esta tesis son las siguientes: La aplicación de la técnica de cancelación de rizado a un convertidor reductor síncrono para un amplificador de envolvente de alto rendimiento para un RFPA linealizado mediante la técnica de EER. Una reducción del 66% en la frecuencia de conmutación, comparado con el reductor convencional equivalente. Esta reducción se ha validado experimentalmente obteniéndose una mejora en el rendimiento de entre el 12.4% y el 16% para las especificaciones de este trabajo. La topología y el diseño del convertidor reductor con dos redes de cancelación de rizado en cascada para mejorar el funcionamiento y robustez de la solución con una red de cancelación. La combinación de un convertidor redactor multifase con la técnica de cancelación de rizado para obtener una topología que proporciona una reducción del cociente entre frecuencia de conmutación y ancho de banda de la señal. El proceso de optimización del control del amplificador de envolvente en lazo cerrado para mejorar el funcionamiento respecto a la solución en lazo abierto del convertidor reductor con red de cancelación de rizado. Una herramienta de simulación para optimizar el proceso de diseño del amplificador de envolvente mediante la estimación de las figuras de mérito del RFPA, implementado mediante EER, basada en el diseño del amplificador de envolvente. La integración y caracterización del amplificador de envolvente basado en un convertidor reductor con red de cancelación de rizado en el transmisor de radiofrecuencia completo consiguiendo un elevado rendimiento, entre 57% y 70.6% para potencias de salida de 14.4W y 40.7W respectivamente. Esta tesis se divide en seis capítulos. El primer capítulo aborda la introducción enfocada en la aplicación, los amplificadores de potencia de radiofrecuencia, así como los principales problemas, retos y soluciones existentes. En el capítulo dos se desarrolla el estado del arte de amplificadores de potencia de RF, describiéndose las principales técnicas de diseño, las causas de no linealidad y las técnicas de optimización. El capítulo tres está centrado en las soluciones propuestas para el amplificador de envolvente. El modo de control se ha abordado en este capítulo y se ha presentado una optimización del diseño en lazo cerrado para el convertidor reductor convencional y para el convertidor reductor con red de cancelación de rizado. El capítulo cuatro se centra en el proceso de diseño del amplificador de envolvente. Se ha desarrollado una herramienta de diseño para evaluar la influencia del amplificador de envolvente en las figuras de mérito del RFPA. En el capítulo cinco se presenta el proceso de integración realizado y las pruebas realizadas para las diversas modulaciones, así como la completa caracterización y análisis del amplificador de RF. El capítulo seis describe las principales conclusiones de la tesis y las líneas futuras. ABSTRACT The trend in the telecommunications sector during the last years follow a high increase in the transmission rate of voice, video and mainly in data. To achieve the required levels of data rates, the new modulation standards demand higher bandwidths and have a higher peak to average power ratio (PAPR). These specifications have a direct impact in the low efficiency of the RFPA. An additional factor for the low efficiency of the RFPA is in the power amplifier design. Traditionally, linear classes have been used for the implementation of the power amplifier as they comply with the technical requirements. However, they have a low efficiency, especially in the operating range of signals with a high PAPR. The low efficiency of the transmitter has additional disadvantages as an increase in the cost and size as the cooling system needs to be increased for a base station and a temperature increase and a lower use time for portable devices. Several solutions have been proposed in the state of the art to improve the efficiency of the transmitter as Outphasing, power combiners or Doherty technique. However, the highest potential of efficiency improvement can be obtained using a modulated power supply for the power amplifier, as in the Envelope Tracking and EER techniques. The Envelope Tracking technique is based on the modulation of the power supply of a linear power amplifier to improve the overall efficiency compared to a fixed voltage supply. In the implementation of this technique an additional stage is needed, the envelope amplifier, that will increase the complexity of the RFPA. However, the efficiency of the linear power amplifier will increase and, if designed properly, the RFPA efficiency will be improved. The advantages of this technique are that the envelope amplifier design does not require such a high bandwidth as the envelope signal and that in the integration process a perfect synchronization between envelope and phase is not required. The Envelope Elimination and Restoration (EER) technique, known also as Kahn’s technique, is based on the simultaneous modulation of envelope and phase using a high efficiency switched power amplifier. This solution has the highest potential in terms of the efficiency improvement but also has the most challenging specifications. This solution, proposed in 1952, has not been successfully implemented until the last two decades due to the high demanding requirements for each of the stages as well as for the highly demanding processing and computation capabilities needed. At the system level, a very precise synchronization is required between the envelope and phase paths to avoid a linearity decrease of the system. Several techniques are used to compensate the non-linear effects in amplitude and phase and to improve the rejection of the out of band noise as predistortion, feedback and feed-forward. In order to obtain a high bandwidth and efficient RFPA using either ET or EER, the envelope amplifier stage will have a critical importance. The requirements for this stage are very demanding in terms of bandwidth, linearity and quality of the transmitted signal. Additionally the efficiency should be as high as possible, as the envelope amplifier has a direct impact in the efficiency of the overall system. This thesis is focused on the envelope amplifier stage and the main objective will be the development of high efficiency envelope amplifier solutions that comply with the requirements of the RFPA application. The design and optimization of an envelope amplifier for a RFPA application is a highly referenced research topic, and many solutions that address the envelope amplifier and the RFPA design and optimization can be found in the state of the art. From a high level classification, multiple and single stage envelope amplifiers can be identified. Envelope amplifiers for EER based on multiple stage architecture combine a linear assisted stage and a switched-mode stage, either in a series or parallel configuration, to achieve a very high performance RFPA. However, the complexity of the system increases and the efficiency improvement is limited. A single-stage envelope amplifier has the advantage of a lower complexity but in order to achieve the required bandwidth the switching frequency has to be highly increased, and therefore the performance and the efficiency are degraded. Several techniques are used to overcome this limitation, as the design of integrated circuits that are capable of switching at very high rates or the use of topological solutions, high order filters or a combination of both to reduce the switching frequency requirements. In this thesis it is originally proposed the use of the ripple cancellation technique, applied to a synchronous buck converter, to reduce the switching frequency requirements compared to a conventional buck converter for an envelope amplifier application. Three original proposals for the envelope amplifier stage, based on the ripple cancellation technique, are presented and one of the solutions has been experimentally validated and integrated in the complete amplifier, showing a high total efficiency increase compared to other solutions of the state of the art. Additionally, the proposed envelope amplifier has been integrated in the complete RFPA achieving a high total efficiency. The design process optimization has also been analyzed in this thesis. Due to the different figures of merit between the envelope amplifier and the complete RFPA it is very difficult to obtain an optimized design for the envelope amplifier. To reduce the design uncertainties, a design tool has been developed to provide an estimation of the RFPA figures of merit based on the design of the envelope amplifier. The main contributions of this thesis are: The application of the ripple cancellation technique to a synchronous buck converter for an envelope amplifier application to achieve a high efficiency and high bandwidth EER RFPA. A 66% reduction of the switching frequency, validated experimentally, compared to the equivalent conventional buck converter. This reduction has been reflected in an improvement in the efficiency between 12.4% and 16%, validated for the specifications of this work. The synchronous buck converter with two cascaded ripple cancellation networks (RCNs) topology and design to improve the robustness and the performance of the envelope amplifier. The combination of a phase-shifted multi-phase buck converter with the ripple cancellation technique to improve the envelope amplifier switching frequency to signal bandwidth ratio. The optimization of the control loop of an envelope amplifier to improve the performance of the open loop design for the conventional and ripple cancellation buck converter. A simulation tool to optimize the envelope amplifier design process. Using the envelope amplifier design as the input data, the main figures of merit of the complete RFPA for an EER application are obtained for several digital modulations. The successful integration of the envelope amplifier based on a RCN buck converter in the complete RFPA obtaining a high efficiency integrated amplifier. The efficiency obtained is between 57% and 70.6% for an output power of 14.4W and 40.7W respectively. The main figures of merit for the different modulations have been characterized and analyzed. This thesis is organized in six chapters. In Chapter 1 is provided an introduction of the RFPA application, where the main problems, challenges and solutions are described. In Chapter 2 the technical background for radiofrequency power amplifiers (RF) is presented. The main techniques to implement an RFPA are described and analyzed. The state of the art techniques to improve performance of the RFPA are identified as well as the main sources of no-linearities for the RFPA. Chapter 3 is focused on the envelope amplifier stage. The three different solutions proposed originally in this thesis for the envelope amplifier are presented and analyzed. The control stage design is analyzed and an optimization is proposed both for the conventional and the RCN buck converter. Chapter 4 is focused in the design and optimization process of the envelope amplifier and a design tool to evaluate the envelope amplifier design impact in the RFPA is presented. Chapter 5 shows the integration process of the complete amplifier. Chapter 6 addresses the main conclusions of the thesis and the future work.

Management factors affecting mortality, feed intake, and feed conversion ratio of grow-finishing pigs

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of animal management and farm facilities on total feed intake (TFI), feed conversion ratio (FCR) and mortality rate (MORT) of grower-finishing pigs. In total, 310 batches from 244 grower-finishing farms, consisting of 454 855 Pietrain sired pigs in six Spanish pig companies were used. Data collection consisted of a survey on management practices (season of placement, split-sex by pens, number of pig origins, water source in the farm, initial or final BW) and facilities (floor, feeder, ventilation or number of animals placed) during 2008 and 2009. Results indicated that batches of pigs placed between January and March had higher TFI (P=0.006), FCR (P=0.005) and MORT (P=0.03) than those placed between July and September. Moreover, batches of pigs placed between April and June had lower MORT (P=0.003) than those placed between January and March. Batches which had split-sex pens had lower TFI (P=0.001) and better FCR (P<0.001) than those with mixed-sex in pens; pigs fed with a single-space feeder with incorporated drinker also had the lowest TFI (P<0.001) and best FCR (P<0.001) in comparison to single and multi-space feeders without a drinker. Pigs placed in pens with <50% slatted floors presented an improvement in FCR (P<0.05) than pens with 50% or more slatted floors. Batches filled with pigs from multiple origins had higher MORT (P<0.001) than those from a single origin. Pigs housed in barns that performed manual ventilation control presented higher MORT (P<0.001) in comparison to automatic ventilation. The regression analysis also indicated that pigs which entered to grower-finisher facilities with higher initial BW had lower MORT (P<0.05) and finally pigs which were sent to slaughterhouse with a higher final BW presented higher TFI (P<0.001). The variables selected for each dependent variable explained 61.9%, 24.8% and 20.4% of the total variability for TFI, FCR and MORT, respectively. This study indicates that farms can increase growth performance and reduce mortality by improving farm facilities and/or modifying management practices.