Prolonged activation of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor–Ca2+ transduction pathway causes spontaneous recurrent epileptiform discharges in hippocampal neurons in culture

The molecular basis for developing symptomatic epilepsy (epileptogenesis) remains ill defined. We show here in a well characterized hippocampal culture model of epilepsy that the induction of epileptogenesis is Ca2+-dependent. The concentration of intracellular free Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) was monitored during the induction of epileptogenesis by prolonged electrographic seizure activity induced through low-Mg2+ treatment by confocal laser-scanning fluorescent microscopy to directly correlate changes in [Ca2+]i with alterations in membrane excitability measured by intracellular recording using whole-cell current–clamp techniques. The induction of long-lasting spontaneous recurrent epileptiform discharges, but not the Mg2+-induced spike discharges, was prevented in low-Ca2+ solutions and was dependent on activation of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. The results provide direct evidence that prolonged activation of the NMDA–Ca2+ transduction pathway causes a long-lasting plasticity change in hippocampal neurons causing increased excitability leading to the occurrence of spontaneous, recurrent epileptiform discharges.

Identification of an early T cell progenitor for a pathway of T cell maturation in the bone marrow

We have identified a rare (≈0.05–0.1%) population of cells (Thy-1hiCD16+CD44hiCD2−TCRαβ−B220−Mac-1−NK1.1−) in the adult mouse bone marrow that generates CD4+ and CD8+ TCRαβ+ T cells after tissue culture for 48 hr in the presence of Ly5 congenic marrow cells. The essential stages in the maturation of the progenitors were determined; the stages included an early transition from CD2−CD16+CD44hiTCRαβ− to CD2+CD16int/−CD44int/−TCRαβ− cells, and a later transition to CD4+CD8+TCRαβ+ double-positive T cells that rapidly generate the CD4+ and CD8+ single-positive T cells. The maturation of the progenitors is almost completely arrested at the CD2+TCRαβ− stage by the presence of mature T cells at the initiation of cultures. This alternate pathway is supported by the marrow microenvironment; it recapitulates critical intermediary steps in intrathymic T cell maturation.

Differential use of the signal recognition particle translocase targeting pathway for inner membrane protein assembly in Escherichia coli

Assembly of several inner membrane proteins—leader peptidase (Lep), a Lep derivative (Lep-inv) that inserts with an inverted topology compared with the wild-type protein, the phage M13 procoat protein, and a procoat derivative (H1-procoat) with the hydrophobic core of the signal peptide replaced by a stretch from the first transmembrane segment in Lep—has been studied in vitro and in Escherichia coli strains that are conditional for the expression of either the 54 homologue (Ffh) or 4.5S RNA, which are the two components of the E. coli signal recognition particle (SRP), or SecE, an essential core component of the E. coli preprotein translocase. Membrane insertion has also been tested in a SecB null strain. Lep, Lep-inv, and H1-procoat require SRP for correct assembly into the inner membrane; in contrast, we find that wild-type procoat does not. Lep and, surprisingly, Lep-inv and H1-procoat fail to insert properly when SecE is depleted, whereas insertion of wild-type procoat is unaffected under these conditions. None of the proteins depend on SecB for assembly. These observations indicate that inner membrane proteins can assemble either by a mechanism in which SRP delivers the protein at the preprotein translocase or by what appears to be a direct integration into the lipid bilayer. The observed change in assembly mechanism when the hydrophobicity of the procoat signal peptide is increased demonstrates that the assembly of an inner membrane protein can be rerouted between different pathways.

Amyloid-β peptide–Receptor for Advanced Glycation Endproduct interaction elicits neuronal expression of macrophage-colony stimulating factor: A proinflammatory pathway in Alzheimer disease

In Alzheimer disease (AD), neurons are thought to be subjected to the deleterious cytotoxic effects of activated microglia. We demonstrate that binding of amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) to neuronal Receptor for Advanced Glycation Endproduct (RAGE), a cell surface receptor for Aβ, induces macrophage-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) by an oxidant sensitive, nuclear factor κB-dependent pathway. AD brain shows increased neuronal expression of M-CSF in proximity to Aβ deposits, and in cerebrospinal fluid from AD patients there was ≈5-fold increased M-CSF antigen (P < 0.01), compared with age-matched controls. M-CSF released by Aβ-stimulated neurons interacts with its cognate receptor, c-fms, on microglia, thereby triggering chemotaxis, cell proliferation, increased expression of the macrophage scavenger receptor and apolipoprotein E, and enhanced survival of microglia exposed to Aβ, consistent with pathologic findings in AD. These data delineate an inflammatory pathway triggered by engagement of Aβ on neuronal RAGE. We suggest that M-CSF, thus generated, contributes to the pathogenesis of AD, and that M-CSF in cerebrospinal fluid might provide a means for monitoring neuronal perturbation at an early stage in AD.

Conservation of the Drosophila lateral inhibition pathway in human lung cancer: A hairy-related protein (HES-1) directly represses achaete-scute homolog-1 expression

The achaete-scute genes encode essential transcription factors in normal Drosophila and vertebrate nervous system development. Human achaete-scute homolog-1 (hASH1) is constitutively expressed in a human lung cancer with neuroendocrine (NE) features, small cell lung cancer (SCLC), and is essential for development of the normal pulmonary NE cells that most resemble this neoplasm. Mechanisms regulating achaete-scute homolog expression outside of Drosophila are presently unclear, either in the context of the developing nervous system or in normal or neoplastic cells with NE features. We now provide evidence that the protein hairy-enhancer-of-split-1 (HES-1) acts in a similar manner as its Drosophila homolog, hairy, to transcriptionally repress achaete-scute expression. HES-1 protein is detected at abundant levels in most non-NE human lung cancer cell lines which lack hASH1 but is virtually absent in hASH1-expressing lung cancer cells. Moreover, induction of HES-1 in a SCLC cell line down-regulates endogenous hASH1 gene expression. The repressive effect of HES-1 is directly mediated by binding of the protein to a class C site in the hASH1 promoter. Thus, a key part of the process that determines neural fate in Drosophila is conserved in human lung cancer cells. Furthermore, modulation of this pathway may underlie the constitutive hASH1 expression seen in NE tumors such as SCLC, the most virulent human lung cancer.

A novel multifunctional O-methyltransferase implicated in a dual methylation pathway associated with lignin biosynthesis in loblolly pine

S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM)-dependent O-methyltransferases (OMTs) catalyze the methylation of hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives for the synthesis of methylated plant polyphenolics, including lignin. The distinction in the extent of methylation of lignins in angiosperms and gymnosperms, mediated by substrate-specific OMTs, represents one of the fundamental differences in lignin biosynthesis between these two classes of plants. In angiosperms, two types of structurally and functionally distinct lignin pathway OMTs, caffeic acid 3-O-methyltransferases (CAOMTs) and caffeoyl CoA 3-O-methyltransferases (CCoAOMTs), have been reported and extensively studied. However, little is known about lignin pathway OMTs in gymnosperms. We report here the first cloning of a loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) xylem cDNA encoding a multifunctional enzyme, SAM:hydroxycinnamic Acids/hydroxycinnamoyl CoA Esters OMT (AEOMT). The deduced protein sequence of AEOMT is partially similar to, but clearly distinguishable from, that of CAOMTs and does not exhibit any significant similarity with CCoAOMT protein sequences. However, functionally, yeast-expressed AEOMT enzyme catalyzed the methylation of CAOMT substrates, caffeic and 5-hydroxyferulic acids, as well as CCoAOMT substrates, caffeoyl CoA and 5-hydroxyferuloyl CoA esters, with similar specific activities and was completely inactive with substrates associated with flavonoid synthesis. The lignin-related substrates were also efficiently methylated in crude extracts of loblolly pine secondary xylem. Our results support the notion that, in the context of amino acid sequence and biochemical function, AEOMT represents a novel SAM-dependent OMT, with both CAOMT and CCoAOMT activities and thus the potential to mediate a dual methylation pathway in lignin biosynthesis in loblolly pine xylem.

Convergence of two repressors through heterodimer formation of androgen receptor and testicular orphan receptor-4: A unique signaling pathway in the steroid receptor superfamily

The androgen receptor (AR) binds to androgen response elements and regulates target genes via a mechanism involving coregulators. Here we demonstrate that the AR can interact with the testicular orphan receptor-4 (TR4) and function as a repressor to down-regulate the TR4 target genes by preventing the TR4 binding to its target DNA. Interestingly, the heterodimerization of AR and TR4 also allows TR4 to repress AR target gene expression. Simultaneous exposure to both receptors therefore could result in bidirectional suppression of their target genes. Together, these data demonstrate that the coupling of two different receptors, through the heterodimerization of AR and TR4, is a unique signaling pathway in the steroid receptor superfamily, which may facilitate further understanding of the complicated androgen action in prostate cancer or libido.

Homospermidine synthase, the first pathway-specific enzyme of pyrrolizidine alkaloid biosynthesis, evolved from deoxyhypusine synthase

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are preformed plant defense compounds with sporadic phylogenetic distribution. They are thought to have evolved in response to the selective pressure of herbivory. The first pathway-specific intermediate of these alkaloids is the rare polyamine homospermidine, which is synthesized by homospermidine synthase (HSS). The HSS gene from Senecio vernalis was cloned and shown to be derived from the deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS) gene, which is highly conserved among all eukaryotes and archaebacteria. DHS catalyzes the first step in the activation of translation initiation factor 5A (eIF5A), which is essential for eukaryotic cell proliferation and which acts as a cofactor of the HIV-1 Rev regulatory protein. Sequence comparison provides direct evidence for the evolutionary recruitment of an essential gene of primary metabolism (DHS) for the origin of the committing step (HSS) in the biosynthesis of pyrrolizidine alkaloids.

v-K-ras leads to preferential farnesylation of p21ras in FRTL-5 cells: Multiple interference with the isoprenoid pathway

The isoprenoid pathway in FRTL-5 thyroid cells was found to be deeply altered on transformation with v-K-ras. A dramatic overall reduction of protein prenylation was found in v-K-ras-transformed cells in comparison with the parent FRTL-5 cells, as shown by labeling cells with [3H]mevalonic acid. This phenomenon was accompanied by a relative increase of p21ras farnesylation and by a decrease of the ratio between the amounts of geranylgeraniol and farnesol bound to prenylated proteins. Analysis of protein prenylation in FRTL-5 cells transformed by a temperature-sensitive mutant of the v-K-ras oncogene indicated that these variations represent an early and specific marker of active K-ras. Conversely, FRTL-5 cells transformed with Harvey-ras showed a pattern of [3H]-mevalonate (MVA)-labeled proteins similar to that of nontransformed cells. The K-ras oncogene activation also resulted in an overall decrease of [3H]-MVA incorporation into isopentenyl-tRNA together with an increase of unprocessed [3H]-MVA and no alteration in [3H]-MVA uptake. The effects of v-K-ras on protein prenylation could be mimicked in FRTL-5 cells by lowering the concentration of exogenous [3H]-MVA whereas increasing the [3H]-MVA concentration did not revert the alterations observed in transformed cells. Accordingly, v-K-ras expression was found to: (i) down-regulate mevalonate kinase; (ii) induce farnesyl-pyrophosphate synthase expression; and (iii) augment protein farnesyltransferase but not protein geranylgeranyl-transferase-I activity. Among these events, mevalonate kinase down-regulation appeared to be related strictly to differential protein prenylation. This study represents an example of how expression of the v-K-ras oncogene, through multiple interferences with the isoprenoid metabolic pathway, may result in the preferential farnesylation of the ras oncogene product p21ras.

The anaphase inhibitor of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Pds1p is a target of the DNA damage checkpoint pathway

Inhibition of DNA replication and physical DNA damage induce checkpoint responses that arrest cell cycle progression at two different stages. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the execution of both checkpoint responses requires the Mec1 and Rad53 proteins. This observation led to the suggestion that these checkpoint responses are mediated through a common signal transduction pathway. However, because the checkpoint-induced arrests occur at different cell cycle stages, the downstream effectors mediating these arrests are likely to be distinct. We have previously shown that the S. cerevisiae protein Pds1p is an anaphase inhibitor and is essential for cell cycle arrest in mitosis in the presence DNA damage. Herein we show that DNA damage, but not inhibition of DNA replication, induces the phosphorylation of Pds1p. Analyses of Pds1p phosphorylation in different checkpoint mutants reveal that in the presence of DNA damage, Pds1p is phosphorylated in a Mec1p- and Rad9p-dependent but Rad53p-independent manner. Our data place Pds1p and Rad53p on parallel branches of the DNA damage checkpoint pathway. We suggest that Pds1p is a downstream target of the DNA damage checkpoint pathway and that it is involved in implementing the DNA damage checkpoint arrest specifically in mitosis.

α-Tocopherol transfer protein stimulates the secretion of α-tocopherol from a cultured liver cell line through a brefeldin A-insensitive pathway

Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) is a fat-soluble antioxidant that is transported by plasma lipoproteins in the body. α-Tocopherol taken up by the liver with lipoprotein is thought to be resecreted into the plasma in very low density lipoprotein (VLDL). α-Tocopherol transfer protein (αTTP), which was recently identified as a product of the causative gene for familial isolated vitamin E deficiency, is a cytosolic liver protein and plays an important role in the efficient recycling of plasma vitamin E. To throw light on the mechanism of αTTP-mediated α-tocopherol transfer in the liver cell, we devised an assay system using the hepatoma cell line McARH7777. Using this system, we found that the secretion of α-tocopherol was more efficient in cells expressing αTTP than in matched cells lacking αTTP. Brefeldin A, which effectively inhibits VLDL secretion by disrupting the Golgi apparatus, had no effect on α-tocopherol secretion, indicating that αTTP-mediated α-tocopherol secretion is not coupled to VLDL secretion. Among other agents tested, only 25-hydroxycholesterol, a modulator of cholesterol metabolism, inhibited α-tocopherol secretion. This inhibition is most likely mediated by oxysterol-binding protein. These results suggest that αTTP present in the liver cytosol functions to stimulate secretion of cellular α-tocopherol into the extracellular medium and that the reaction utilizes a novel non-Golgi-mediated pathway that may be linked to cellular cholesterol metabolism and/or transport.

A Cell Signal Pathway Involving Laminin-5, α3β1 Integrin, and Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase Can Regulate Epithelial Cell Proliferation

Laminin-5 (LN5) is a matrix component of epithelial tissue basement membranes and plays an important role in the initiation and maintenance of epithelial cell anchorage to the underlying connective tissue. Here we show that two distinct LN5 function-inhibitory antibodies, both of which bind the globular domain of the α3 subunit, inhibit proliferation of epithelial cells. These same antibodies also induce a decrease in mitogen-activated protein kinase activity. Inhibition of proliferation by the function-perturbing LN5 antibodies is reversed upon removal of the antibodies and can be overcome by providing the antibody-treated cells with exogenous LN5 and rat tail collagen. Because epithelial cells use the integrin receptor α3β1 to interact with both LN5 and rat tail collagen, we next investigated the possibility that integrin α3β1 is involved in mediating the proliferative impact of LN5. Proliferation of human epithelial cells is significantly inhibited by a function-perturbing α3 integrin antibody. In addition, antibody activation of β1 integrin restores the proliferation of epithelial cells treated with LN5 function-perturbing antibodies. These data indicate that a complex comprising LN5 and α3β1 integrin is multifunctional and contributes not only to epithelial cell adhesion but also to the regulation of cell growth via a signaling pathway involving mitogen-activated protein kinase. We discuss our study in light of recent evidence that LN5 expression is up-regulated at the leading tips of tumors, where it may play a role in tumor cell proliferation.

The Small Mr Ras-like GTPase Rap1 and the Phospholipase C Pathway Act to Regulate Phagocytosis in Dictyostelium discoideum

The function of the small-Mr Ras-like GTPase Rap1 remains largely unknown, but this protein has been demonstrated to regulate cortical actin-based morphologic changes in Dictyostelium and the oxidative burst in mammalian neutrophils. To test whether Rap1 regulates phagocytosis, we biochemically analyzed cell lines that conditionally and modestly overexpressed wild-type [Rap1 WT(+)], constitutively active [Rap1 G12T(+)], and dominant negative [Rap1 S17N(+)] forms of D. discoideum Rap1. The rates of phagocytosis of bacteria and latex beads were significantly higher in Rap1 WT(+) and Rap1 G12T(+) cells and were reduced in Rap1 S17N(+) cells. The addition of inhibitors of protein kinase A, protein kinase G, protein tyrosine kinase, or phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase did not affect phagocytosis rates in wild-type cells. In contrast, the addition of U73122 (a phospholipase C inhibitor), calphostin C (a protein kinase C inhibitor), and BAPTA-AM (an intracellular Ca2+ chelator) reduced phagocytosis rates by 90, 50, and 65%, respectively, suggesting both arms of the phospholipase C signaling pathways played a role in this process. Other protein kinase C–specific inhibitors, such as chelerythrine and bisindolylmaleimide I, did not reduce phagocytosis rates in control cells, suggesting calphostin C was affecting phagocytosis by interfering with a protein containing a diacylglycerol-binding domain. The addition of calphostin C did not reduce phagocytosis rates in Rap1 G12T(+) cells, suggesting that the putative diacylglycerol-binding protein acted upstream in a signaling pathway with Rap1. Surprisingly, macropinocytosis was significantly reduced in Rap1 WT(+) and Rap1 G12T(+) cells compared with control cells. Together our results suggest that Rap1 and Ca2+ may act together to coordinate important early events regulating phagocytosis.

Eps15 Is Recruited to the Plasma Membrane upon Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Activation and Localizes to Components of the Endocytic Pathway during Receptor Internalization

Eps15 is a substrate for the tyrosine kinase of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and is characterized by the presence of a novel protein:protein interaction domain, the EH domain. Eps15 also stably binds the clathrin adaptor protein complex AP-2. Previous work demonstrated an essential role for eps15 in receptor-mediated endocytosis. In this study we show that, upon activation of the EGFR kinase, eps15 undergoes dramatic relocalization consisting of 1) initial relocalization to the plasma membrane and 2) subsequent colocalization with the EGFR in various intracellular compartments of the endocytic pathway, with the notable exclusion of coated vesicles. Relocalization of eps15 is independent of its binding to the EGFR or of binding of the receptor to AP-2. Furthermore, eps15 appears to undergo tyrosine phosphorylation both at the plasma membrane and in a nocodazole-sensitive compartment, suggesting sustained phosphorylation in endocytic compartments. Our results are consistent with a model in which eps15 undergoes cycles of association:dissociation with membranes and suggest multiple roles for this protein in the endocytic pathway.

Epigallocathechin-3 Gallate Selectively Inhibits the PDGF-BB–induced Intracellular Signaling Transduction Pathway in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells and Inhibits Transformation of sis-transfected NIH 3T3 Fibroblasts and Human Glioblastoma Cells (A172)

Enhanced activity of receptor tyrosine kinases such as the PDGF β-receptor and EGF receptor has been implicated as a contributing factor in the development of malignant and nonmalignant proliferative diseases such as cancer and atherosclerosis. Several epidemiological studies suggest that green tea may prevent the development of cancer and atherosclerosis. One of the major constituents of green tea is the polyphenol epigallocathechin-3 gallate (EGCG). In an attempt to offer a possible explanation for the anti-cancer and anti-atherosclerotic activity of EGCG, we examined the effect of EGCG on the PDGF-BB–, EGF-, angiotensin II-, and FCS-induced activation of the 44 kDa and 42 kDa mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase isoforms (p44mapk/p42mapk) in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) from rat aorta. VSMCs were treated with EGCG (1–100 μM) for 24 h and stimulated with the above mentioned agonists for different time periods. Stimulation of the p44mapk/p42mapk was detected by the enhanced Western blotting method using phospho-specific MAP kinase antibodies that recognized the Tyr204-phosphorylated (active) isoforms. Treatment of VSMCs with 10 and 50 μM EGCG resulted in an 80% and a complete inhibition of the PDGF-BB–induced activation of MAP kinase isoforms, respectively. In striking contrast, EGCG (1–100 μM) did not influence MAP kinase activation by EGF, angiotensin II, and FCS. Similarly, the maximal effect of PDGF-BB on the c-fos and egr-1 mRNA expression as well as on intracellular free Ca2+ concentration was completely inhibited in EGCG-treated VSMCs, whereas the effect of EGF was not affected. Quantification of the immunoprecipitated tyrosine-phosphorylated PDGF-Rβ, phosphatidylinositol 3′-kinase, and phospholipase C-γ1 by the enhanced Western blotting method revealed that EGCG treatment effectively inhibits tyrosine phosphorylation of these kinases in VSMCs. Furthermore, we show that spheroid formation of human glioblastoma cells (A172) and colony formation of sis-transfected NIH 3T3 cells in semisolid agar are completely inhibited by 20–50 μM EGCG. Our findings demonstrate that EGCG is a selective inhibitor of the tyrosine phosphorylation of PDGF-Rβ and its downstream signaling pathway. The present findings may partly explain the anti-cancer and anti-atherosclerotic activity of green tea.