InfIuence of wave induced second-order forces in semisubmersible fowt mooring design

The main focus of this paper is on hydrodynamic modelling of a semisubmersible platform (which can support a 1.5MW wind turbine and is composed by three buoyant columns connected by bracings) with especial emphasis on the estimation of the wave drift components and their effects on the design of the mooring system. Indeed, with natural periods of drift around 60 seconds, accurate computation of the low-frequency second-order components is not a straightforward task. As methods usually adopted when dealing with the slow-drifts of deep-water moored systems, such as Newman?s approximation, have their errors increased by the relatively low resonant periods, and as the effects of depth cannot be ignored, the wave diffraction analysis must be based on full Quadratic Transfer Functions (QTF) computations. A discussion on the numerical aspects of performing such computations is presented, making use of the second-order module available with the seakeeping software WAMIT®. Finally, the paper also provides a preliminary verification of the accuracy of the numerical predictions based on the results obtained in a series of model tests with the structure fixed in bichromatic waves.

Dynamic & Cyclic behaviour of ballast in the long term as determined in Cedex's track box

The 6 cylinder servo-hydraulic loading system of CEDEX's track box (250 kN, 50 Hz) has been recently implemented with a new piezoelectric loading system (±20 kN, 300 Hz) allowing the incorporation of low amplitude high frequency dynamic load time histories to the high amplitude low frequency quasi-static load time histories used so far in the CEDEX's track box to assess the inelastic long term behavior of ballast under mixed traffic in conventional and high- speed lines. This presentation will discuss the results obtained in the first long-duration test performed at CEDEX's track box using simultaneously both loading systems, to simulate the pass-by of 6000 freight vehicles (1M of 225 kN axle loads) travelling at a speed of 120 km/h over a line with vertical irregularities corresponding to a medium quality lin3e level. The superstructure of the track tested at full scale consisted of E 60 rails, stiff rail pads (mayor que 450 kN/mm), B90.2 sleepers with USP 0.10 N/mm and a 0.35 m thick ballast layer of ADIF first class. A shear wave velocity of 250 m/s can be assumed for the different layers of the track sub-base. The ballast long-term settlements will be compared with those obtained in a previous long-duration quasi- static test performed in the same track, for the RIVAS [EU co-funded] project, in which no dynamic loads where considered. Also, the results provided by a high diameter cyclic triaxial cell with ballast tested in full size will be commented. Finally, the progress made at CEDEX's Geotechnical Laboratory to reproduce numerically the long term behavior of ballast will be discussed.

Brain-wide slowing of spontaneous alpha rhythms in mild cognitive impairment

The neurophysiological changes associated with Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) include an increase in low frequency activity, as measured with electroencephalography or magnetoencephalography (MEG). A relevant property of spectral measures is the alpha peak, which corresponds to the dominant alpha rhythm. Here we studied the spatial distribution of MEG resting state alpha peak frequency and amplitude values in a sample of 27 MCI patients and 24 age-matched healthy controls. Power spectra were reconstructed in source space with linearly constrained minimum variance beamformer. Then, 88 Regions of Interest (ROIs) were defined and an alpha peak per ROI and subject was identified. Statistical analyses were performed at every ROI, accounting for age, sex and educational level. Peak frequency was significantly decreased (p < 0.05) in MCIs in many posterior ROIs. The average peak frequency over all ROIs was 9.68 ± 0.71 Hz for controls and 9.05 ± 0.90 Hz for MCIs and the average normalized amplitude was (2.57 ± 0.59)·10−2 for controls and (2.70 ± 0.49)·10−2 for MCIs. Age and gender were also found to play a role in the alpha peak, since its frequency was higher in females than in males in posterior ROIs and correlated negatively with age in frontal ROIs. Furthermore, we examined the dependence of peak parameters with hippocampal volume, which is a commonly used marker of early structural AD-related damage. Peak frequency was positively correlated with hippocampal volume in many posterior ROIs. Overall, these findings indicate a pathological alpha slowing in MCI.

Divisores Wilkinson con elementos concentrados para procesado de pulsos

Some photodetectors like PMTs and SiPMs give pulses of few nanosecond width at their outputs, which need to be properly processed with analog circuits. Power splitters with two and three outputs are required to distribute this kind of fast pulses equally among different outputs. Good matching and low pass response are necessary to avoid shape deformation, which discard low frequency designs with operational amplifiers. To match these requirements two Wilkinson dividers were designed, substituting the lambda quarter lines for lumped elements. These changes provide us with low pass response and much smaller size, using SMD devices. The splitters were manufactured and measured, with good results.

Detector de banda ultraancha en tecnología microstrip hasta 40 GHz

Detectors designing is a key aspect for the development of the new millimeter wave systems. In this paper two detectors in microstrip technology are presented. They use zero bias Schottky diodes to detect signals from low frequency to 40 GHz. High sensibility, flat frequency response and ultrabroadband are the main features of these designs. They are also cheap and easy to mount because they have been built using microstrip technology. This paper explains most technological questions which must be taken into account to design such detectors.

Dynamic analysis of payloads and structures with intermediate modal density

La necesidad de desarrollar técnicas para predecir la respuesta vibroacústica de estructuras espaciales lia ido ganando importancia en los últimos años. Las técnicas numéricas existentes en la actualidad son capaces de predecir de forma fiable el comportamiento vibroacústico de sistemas con altas o bajas densidades modales. Sin embargo, ambos rangos no siempre solapan lo que hace que sea necesario el desarrollo de métodos específicos para este rango, conocido como densidad modal media. Es en este rango, conocido también como media frecuencia, donde se centra la presente Tesis doctoral, debido a la carencia de métodos específicos para el cálculo de la respuesta vibroacústica. Para las estructuras estudiadas en este trabajo, los mencionados rangos de baja y alta densidad modal se corresponden, en general, con los rangos de baja y alta frecuencia, respectivamente. Los métodos numéricos que permiten obtener la respuesta vibroacústica para estos rangos de frecuencia están bien especificados. Para el rango de baja frecuencia se emplean técnicas deterministas, como el método de los Elementos Finitos, mientras que, para el rango de alta frecuencia las técnicas estadísticas son más utilizadas, como el Análisis Estadístico de la Energía. En el rango de medias frecuencias ninguno de estos métodos numéricos puede ser usado con suficiente precisión y, como consecuencia -a falta de propuestas más específicas- se han desarrollado métodos híbridos que combinan el uso de métodos de baja y alta frecuencia, intentando que cada uno supla las deficiencias del otro en este rango medio. Este trabajo propone dos soluciones diferentes para resolver el problema de la media frecuencia. El primero de ellos, denominado SHFL (del inglés Subsystem based High Frequency Limit procedure), propone un procedimiento multihíbrido en el cuál cada subestructura del sistema completo se modela empleando una técnica numérica diferente, dependiendo del rango de frecuencias de estudio. Con este propósito se introduce el concepto de límite de alta frecuencia de una subestructura, que marca el límite a partir del cual dicha subestructura tiene una densidad modal lo suficientemente alta como para ser modelada utilizando Análisis Estadístico de la Energía. Si la frecuencia de análisis es menor que el límite de alta frecuencia de la subestructura, ésta se modela utilizando Elementos Finitos. Mediante este método, el rango de media frecuencia se puede definir de una forma precisa, estando comprendido entre el menor y el mayor de los límites de alta frecuencia de las subestructuras que componen el sistema completo. Los resultados obtenidos mediante la aplicación de este método evidencian una mejora en la continuidad de la respuesta vibroacústica, mostrando una transición suave entre los rangos de baja y alta frecuencia. El segundo método propuesto se denomina HS-CMS (del inglés Hybrid Substructuring method based on Component Mode Synthesis). Este método se basa en la clasificación de la base modal de las subestructuras en conjuntos de modos globales (que afectan a todo o a varias partes del sistema) o locales (que afectan a una única subestructura), utilizando un método de Síntesis Modal de Componentes. De este modo es posible situar espacialmente los modos del sistema completo y estudiar el comportamiento del mismo desde el punto de vista de las subestructuras. De nuevo se emplea el concepto de límite de alta frecuencia de una subestructura para realizar la clasificación global/local de los modos en la misma. Mediante dicha clasificación se derivan las ecuaciones globales del movimiento, gobernadas por los modos globales, y en las que la influencia del conjunto de modos locales se introduce mediante modificaciones en las mismas (en su matriz dinámica de rigidez y en el vector de fuerzas). Las ecuaciones locales se resuelven empleando Análisis Estadístico de Energías. Sin embargo, este último será un modelo híbrido, en el cual se introduce la potencia adicional aportada por la presencia de los modos globales. El método ha sido probado para el cálculo de la respuesta de estructuras sometidas tanto a cargas estructurales como acústicas. Ambos métodos han sido probados inicialmente en estructuras sencillas para establecer las bases e hipótesis de aplicación. Posteriormente, se han aplicado a estructuras espaciales, como satélites y reflectores de antenas, mostrando buenos resultados, como se concluye de la comparación de las simulaciones y los datos experimentales medidos en ensayos, tanto estructurales como acústicos. Este trabajo abre un amplio campo de investigación a partir del cual es posible obtener metodologías precisas y eficientes para reproducir el comportamiento vibroacústico de sistemas en el rango de la media frecuencia. ABSTRACT Over the last years an increasing need of novel prediction techniques for vibroacoustic analysis of space structures has arisen. Current numerical techniques arc able to predict with enough accuracy the vibro-acoustic behaviour of systems with low and high modal densities. However, space structures are, in general, very complex and they present a range of frequencies in which a mixed behaviour exist. In such cases, the full system is composed of some sub-structures which has low modal density, while others present high modal density. This frequency range is known as the mid-frequency range and to develop methods for accurately describe the vibro-acoustic response in this frequency range is the scope of this dissertation. For the structures under study, the aforementioned low and high modal densities correspond with the low and high frequency ranges, respectively. For the low frequency range, deterministic techniques as the Finite Element Method (FEM) are used while, for the high frequency range statistical techniques, as the Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA), arc considered as more appropriate. In the mid-frequency range, where a mixed vibro-acoustic behaviour is expected, any of these numerical method can not be used with enough confidence level. As a consequence, it is usual to obtain an undetermined gap between low and high frequencies in the vibro-acoustic response function. This dissertation proposes two different solutions to the mid-frequency range problem. The first one, named as The Subsystem based High Frequency Limit (SHFL) procedure, proposes a multi-hybrid procedure in which each sub-structure of the full system is modelled with the appropriate modelling technique, depending on the frequency of study. With this purpose, the concept of high frequency limit of a sub-structure is introduced, marking out the limit above which a substructure has enough modal density to be modelled by SEA. For a certain analysis frequency, if it is lower than the high frequency limit of the sub-structure, the sub-structure is modelled through FEM and, if the frequency of analysis is higher than the high frequency limit, the sub-structure is modelled by SEA. The procedure leads to a number of hybrid models required to cover the medium frequency range, which is defined as the frequency range between the lowest substructure high frequency limit and the highest one. Using this procedure, the mid-frequency range can be define specifically so that, as a consequence, an improvement in the continuity of the vibro-acoustic response function is achieved, closing the undetermined gap between the low and high frequency ranges. The second proposed mid-frequency solution is the Hybrid Sub-structuring method based on Component Mode Synthesis (HS-CMS). The method adopts a partition scheme based on classifying the system modal basis into global and local sets of modes. This classification is performed by using a Component Mode Synthesis, in particular a Craig-Bampton transformation, in order to express the system modal base into the modal bases associated with each sub-structure. Then, each sub-structure modal base is classified into global and local set, fist ones associated with the long wavelength motion and second ones with the short wavelength motion. The high frequency limit of each sub-structure is used as frequency frontier between both sets of modes. From this classification, the equations of motion associated with global modes are derived, which include the interaction of local modes by means of corrections in the dynamic stiffness matrix and the force vector of the global problem. The local equations of motion are solved through SEA, where again interactions with global modes arc included through the inclusion of an additional input power into the SEA model. The method has been tested for the calculation of the response function of structures subjected to structural and acoustic loads. Both methods have been firstly tested in simple structures to establish their basis and main characteristics. Methods are also verified in space structures, as satellites and antenna reflectors, providing good results as it is concluded from the comparison with experimental results obtained in both, acoustic and structural load tests. This dissertation opens a wide field of research through which further studies could be performed to obtain efficient and accurate methodologies to appropriately reproduce the vibro-acoustic behaviour of complex systems in the mid-frequency range.

Vibro-acoustic analysis of spacecraft structures with thin air layers

Esta Tesis presenta un estudio sobre el comportamiento vibroacústico de estructuras espaciales que incluyen capas de aire delgadas, así como sobre su modelización numérica. Las capas de aire pueden constituir un elemento fundamental en estos sistemas, como paneles solares plegados, que se consideran el caso de estudio en este trabajo. Para evaluar la influencia de las capas de aire en la respuesta dinámica del sistema se presenta el uso de modelos unidimensionales. La modelización de estos sistemas se estudia para los rangos de baja y alta frecuencia. En el rango de baja frecuencia se propone un conjunto de estrategias de simulación basadas en técnicas numéricas que se utilizan habitualmente en la industria aeroespacial para facilitar la aplicación de los resultados de la Tesis en los modelos numéricos actuales. Los resultados muestran el importante papel de las capas de aire en la respuesta del sistema. El uso de modelos basados en elementos finitos o de contorno para estos elementos proporciona resultados equivalentes aunque la aplicabilidad de estos últimos puede estar condicionada por la geometría del problema. Se estudia asimismo el uso del Análisis Estadístico de la Energía (SEA) para estos elementos. Una de las estrategias de simulación propuestas, que incluye una formulación energética para el aire que rodea a la estructura, se propone como estimador preliminar de la respuesta del sistema y sus frecuencias propias. Para el rango de alta frecuencia, se estudia la influencia de la definición del propio modelo SEA. Se presenta el uso de técnicas de reducción para determinar una matriz de pérdidas SEA reducida para definiciones incompletas del sistema (si algún elemento que interactúa con el resto no se incluye en el modelo). Esta nueva matriz tiene en cuenta la contribución de las subestructuras que no se consideran parte del modelo y que suelen ignorarse en el procedimiento habitual para reducir el tamaño del mismo. Esta matriz permite también analizar sistemas que incluyen algún componente con problemas de accesibilidad para medir su respuesta. Respecto a la determinación de los factores de pérdidas del sistema, se presenta una metodología que permite abordar casos en los que el método usual, el Método de Inyección de Potencia (PIM), no puede usarse. Se presenta un conjunto de métodos basados en la técnicas de optimización y de actualización de modelos para casos en los que no se puede medir la respuesta de todos los elementos del sistema y también para casos en los que no todos los elementos pueden ser excitados, abarcando un conjunto de casos más amplio que el abordable con el PIM. Para ambos rangos de frecuencia se presentan diferentes casos de análisis: modelos numéricos para validar los métodos propuestos y un panel solar plegado como caso experimental que pone de manifiesto la aplicación práctica de los métodos presentados en la Tesis. ABSTRACT This Thesis presents an study on the vibro-acoustic behaviour of spacecraft structures with thin air layers and their numerical modelling. The air layers can play a key role in these systems as solar wings in folded configuration that constitute the study case for this Thesis. A method based on one-dimensional models is presented to assess the influence of the air layers in the dynamic response of the system. The modelling of such systems is studied for low and high frequency ranges. In the low frequency range a set of modelling strategies are proposed based on numerical techniques used in the industry to facilitate the application of the results in the current numerical models. Results show the active role of the air layers in the system response and their great level of influence. The modelling of these elements by means of Finite Elements (FE) and Boundary Elements (BE) provide equivalent results although the applicability of BE models can be conditioned by the geometry of the problem. The use of Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA) for these systems is also presented. Good results on the system response are found for models involving SEA beyond the usual applicability limit. A simulation strategy, involving energetic formulation for the surrounding fluid is proposed as fast preliminary approach for the system response and the coupled eigenfrequencies. For the high frequency range, the influence of the definition of the SEA model is presented. Reduction techniques are used to determine a Reduced SEA Loss Matrix if the system definition is not complete and some elements, which interact with the rest, are not included. This new matrix takes into account the contribution of the subsystems not considered that are neglected in the usual approach for decreasing the size of the model. It also allows the analysis of systems with accessibility restrictions on some element in order to measure its response. Regarding the determination of the loss factors of a system, a methodology is presented for cases in which the usual Power Injection Method (PIM) can not be applied. A set of methods are presented for cases in which not all the subsystem responses can be measured or not all the subsystems can be excited, as solar wings in folded configuration. These methods, based on error minimising and model updating techniques can be used to calculate the system loss factors in a set of cases wider than the PIM’s. For both frequency ranges, different test problems are analysed: Numerical models are studied to validate the methods proposed; an experimental case consisting in an actual solar wing is studied on both frequency ranges to highlight the industrial application of the new methods presented in the Thesis.

Transverse galloping of two-dimensional bodies having a rhombic cross-section

Transverse galloping is a type of aeroelastic instability characterized by oscillations perpendicular to wind direction, large amplitude and low frequency, which appears in some elastic two-dimensional bluff bodies when they are subjected to an incident flow, provided that the flow velocity exceeds a threshold critical value. Understanding the galloping phenomenon of different cross-sectional geometries is important in a number of engineering applications: for energy harvesting applications the interest relies on strongly unstable configurations but in other cases the purpose is to avoid this type of aeroelastic phenomenon. In this paper the aim is to analyze the transverse galloping behavior of rhombic bodies to understand, on the one hand, the dependence of the instability with a geometrical parameter such as the relative thickness and, on the other hand, why this cross-section shape, that is generally unstable, shows a small range of relative thickness values where it is stable. Particularly, the non-galloping rhombus-shaped prism?s behavior is revised through wind tunnel experiments. The bodies are allowed to freely move perpendicularly to the incoming flow and the amplitude of movement and pressure distributions on the surfaces is measured.

Determination of Maximum Mechanical Energy Efficiency in Energy Galloping Systems

Transverse galloping is a type of aeroelastic instability characterized by large amplitude, low frequency, normal to wind oscillations that appear in some elastic two-dimensional bluff bodies when subjected to a fluid flow, provided that the flow velocity exceeds a threshold critical value. Such an oscillatory motion is explained because of the energy transfer from the flow to the two-dimensional bluff body. The 7 amount of energy that can be extracted depends on the cross section of the galloping prism. Assuming that the Glauert-Den Hartog quasistatic criterion for galloping instability is satisfied in a first approximation, the suitability of a given cross section for energy harvesting is evaluated by analyzing the lateral aerodynamic force coefficient, fitting a function with a power series in tan a (a being the angle of attack) to 10 available experimental data. In this paper, a fairly large number of simple prisms (triangle, ellipse, biconvex, and rhombus cross sections, as well 11 as D-shaped bodies) is analyzed for suitability as energy harvesters. The influence of the fitting process in the energy harvesting efficiency evaluation is also demonstrated. The analysis shows that the more promising bodies are those with isosceles or approximate isosceles cross sections.

Grouped sparsity algorithm for multichannel intracardiac ECG synchronization

In this paper, a new method is presented to ensure automatic synchronization of intracardiac ECG data, yielding a three-stage algorithm. We first compute a robust estimate of the derivative of the data to remove low-frequency perturbations. Then we provide a grouped-sparse representation of the data, by means of the Group LASSO, to ensure that all the electrical spikes are simultaneously detected. Finally, a post-processing step, based on a variance analysis, is performed to discard false alarms. Preliminary results on real data for sinus rhythm and atrial fibrillation show the potential of this approach.

Global Stability Analysis of a Compressible Turbulent Flow around a High-Lift Configuration

The purpose of this work is to analyze a complex high lift configuration for which significant regions of separated flow are present. Current state of the art methods have some diffculty to predict the origin and the progression of this separated flow when increasing the angle of attack. The mechanisms responsible for the maximum lift limit on multi-element wing con?gurations are not clear; this stability analysis could help to understand the physics behind the phenomenon and to find a relation between the flow separation and the instability onset. The methodology presented herein consists in the computation of a steady base flow solution based on a finite volume discretization and a proposal of the solution for a generalized eigenvalue problem corresponding to the perturbed and linearized problem. The eigenvalue problem has been solved with the Arnoldi iterative method, one of the Krylov subspace projection methods. The described methodology was applied to the NACA0012 test case in subsonic and in transonic conditions and, finally, for the first time to the authors knowledge, on an industrial multi-component geometry, such as the A310 airfoil, in order to identify low frequency instabilities related to the separation. One important conclusion is that for all the analyzed geometries, one unstable mode related to flow separation appears for an angle of attack greater than the one correspondent to the maximum lift coe?cient condition. Finally, an adjoint study was carried out in order to evaluate the receptivity and the structural sensitivity of the geometries, giving an indication of the domain region that could be modified resulting in the biggest change of the flowfield.

Direct and adjoint global stability analysis of turbulent transonic flows over a NACA0012 profile

In this work, various turbulent solutions of the two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional compressible Reynolds averaged Navier?Stokes equations are analyzed using global stability theory. This analysis is motivated by the onset of flow unsteadiness (Hopf bifurcation) for transonic buffet conditions where moderately high Reynolds numbers and compressible effects must be considered. The buffet phenomenon involves a complex interaction between the separated flow and a shock wave. The efficient numerical methodology presented in this paper predicts the critical parameters, namely, the angle of attack and Mach and Reynolds numbers beyond which the onset of flow unsteadiness appears. The geometry, a NACA0012 profile, and flow parameters selected reproduce situations of practical interest for aeronautical applications. The numerical computation is performed in three steps. First, a steady baseflow solution is obtained; second, the Jacobian matrix for the RANS equations based on a finite volume discretization is computed; and finally, the generalized eigenvalue problem is derived when the baseflow is linearly perturbed. The methodology is validated predicting the 2D Hopf bifurcation for a circular cylinder under laminar flow condition. This benchmark shows good agreement with the previous published computations and experimental data. In the transonic buffet case, the baseflow is computed using the Spalart?Allmaras turbulence model and represents a mean flow where the high frequency content and length scales of the order of the shear-layer thickness have been averaged. The lower frequency content is assumed to be decoupled from the high frequencies, thus allowing a stability analysis to be performed on the low frequency range. In addition, results of the corresponding adjoint problem and the sensitivity map are provided for the first time for the buffet problem. Finally, an extruded three-dimensional geometry of the NACA0012 airfoil, where all velocity components are considered, was also analyzed as a Triglobal stability case, and the outcoming results were compared to the previous 2D limited model, confirming that the buffet onset is well detected.

Development and improvement of protection-system algorithms for ground-fault detection and location in synchronous machines

Uno de los defectos más frecuentes en los generadores síncronos son los defectos a tierra tanto en el devanado estatórico, como de excitación. Se produce un defecto cuando el aislamiento eléctrico entre las partes activas de cualquiera de estos devanados y tierra se reduce considerablemente o desaparece. La detección de los defectos a tierra en ambos devanados es un tema ampliamente estudiado a nivel industrial. Tras la detección y confirmación de la existencia del defecto, dicha falta debe ser localizada a lo largo del devanado para su reparación, para lo que habitualmente el rotor debe ser extraído del estator. Esta operación resulta especialmente compleja y cara. Además, el hecho de limitar la corriente de defecto en ambos devanados provoca que el defecto no sea localizable visualmente, pues apenas existe daño en el generador. Por ello, se deben aplicar técnicas muy laboriosas para localizar exactamente el defecto y poder así reparar el devanado. De cara a reducir el tiempo de reparación, y con ello el tiempo en que el generador esta fuera de servicio, cualquier información por parte del relé de protección acerca de la localización del defecto resultaría de gran utilidad. El principal objetivo de esta tesis doctoral ha sido el desarrollo de nuevos algoritmos que permitan la estimación de la localización de los defectos a tierra tanto en el devanado rotórico como estatórico de máquinas síncronas. Respecto al devanado de excitación, se ha presentado un nuevo método de localización de defectos a tierra para generadores con excitación estática. Este método permite incluso distinguir si el defecto se ha producido en el devanado de excitación, o en cualquiera de los componentes del sistema de excitación, esto es, transformador de excitación, conductores de alimentación del rectificador controlado, etc. En caso de defecto a tierra en del devanado rotórico, este método proporciona una estimación de su localización. Sin embargo, para poder obtener la localización del defecto, se precisa conocer el valor de resistencia de defecto. Por ello, en este trabajo se presenta además un nuevo método para la estimación de este parámetro de forma precisa. Finalmente, se presenta un nuevo método de detección de defectos a tierra, basado en el criterio direccional, que complementa el método de localización, permitiendo tener en cuenta la influencia de las capacidades a tierra del sistema. Estas capacidades resultan determinantes a la hora de localizar el defecto de forma adecuada. En relación con el devanado estatórico, en esta tesis doctoral se presenta un nuevo algoritmo de localización de defectos a tierra para generadores que dispongan de la protección de faltas a tierra basada en la inyección de baja frecuencia. Se ha propuesto un método general, que tiene en cuenta todos los parámetros del sistema, así como una versión simplificada del método para generadores con capacidades a tierra muy reducida, que podría resultar de fácil implementación en relés de protección comercial. Los algoritmos y métodos presentados se han validado mediante ensayos experimentales en un generador de laboratorio de 5 kVA, así como en un generador comercial de 106 MVA con resultados satisfactorios y prometedores. ABSTRACT One of the most common faults in synchronous generators is the ground fault in both the stator winding and the excitation winding. In case of fault, the insulation level between the active part of any of these windings and ground lowers considerably, or even disappears. The detection of ground faults in both windings is a very researched topic. The fault current is typically limited intentionally to a reduced level. This allows to detect easily the ground faults, and therefore to avoid damage in the generator. After the detection and confirmation of the existence of a ground fault, it should be located along the winding in order to repair of the machine. Then, the rotor has to be extracted, which is a very complex and expensive operation. Moreover, the fact of limiting the fault current makes that the insulation failure is not visually detectable, because there is no visible damage in the generator. Therefore, some laborious techniques have to apply to locate accurately the fault. In order to reduce the repair time, and therefore the time that the generator is out of service, any information about the approximate location of the fault would be very useful. The main objective of this doctoral thesis has been the development of new algorithms and methods to estimate the location of ground faults in the stator and in the rotor winding of synchronous generators. Regarding the excitation winding, a new location method of ground faults in excitation winding of synchronous machines with static excitation has been presented. This method allows even to detect if the fault is at the excitation winding, or in any other component of the excitation system: controlled rectifier, excitation transformer, etc. In case of ground fault in the rotor winding, this method provides an estimation of the fault location. However, in order to calculate the location, the value of fault resistance is necessary. Therefore, a new fault-resistance estimation algorithm is presented in this text. Finally, a new fault detection algorithm based on directional criterion is described to complement the fault location method. This algorithm takes into account the influence of the capacitance-to-ground of the system, which has a remarkable impact in the accuracy of the fault location. Regarding the stator winding, a new fault-location algorithm has been presented for stator winding of synchronous generators. This algorithm is applicable to generators with ground-fault protection based in low-frequency injection. A general algorithm, which takes every parameter of the system into account, has been presented. Moreover, a simplified version of the algorithm has been proposed for generators with especially low value of capacitance to ground. This simplified algorithm might be easily implementable in protective relays. The proposed methods and algorithms have been tested in a 5 kVA laboratory generator, as well as in a 106 MVA synchronous generator with satisfactory and promising results.

Electron transport and azimuthal oscillations in hall thrusters

The Hall Effect Thruster (HET) is a type of satellite electric propulsion device initially developed in the 1960’s independently by USA and the former USSR. The development continued in the shadow during the 1970’s in the Soviet Union to reach a mature status from the technological point of view in the 1980’s. In the 1990’s the advanced state of this Russian technology became known in western countries, which rapidly restarted the analysis and development of modern Hall thrusters. Currently, there are several companies in USA, Russia and Europe manufacturing Hall thrusters for operational use. The main applications of these thrusters are low-thrust propulsion of interplanetary probes, orbital raising of satellites and stationkeeping of geostationary satellites. However, despite the well proven in-flight experience, the physics of the Hall Thruster are not completely understood yet. Over the last two decades large efforts have been dedicated to the understanding of the physics of Hall Effect thrusters. However, the so-called anomalous diffusion, short name for an excessive electron conductivity along the thruster, is not yet fully understood as it cannot be explained with classical collisional theories. One commonly accepted explanation is the existence of azimuthal oscillations with correlated plasma density and electric field fluctuations. In fact, there is experimental evidence of the presence of an azimuthal oscillation in the low frequency range (a few kHz). This oscillation, usually called spoke, was first detected empirically by Janes and Lowder in the 1960s. More recently several experiments have shown the existence of this type of oscillation in various modern Hall thrusters. Given the frequency range, it is likely that the ionization is the cause of the spoke oscillation, like for the breathing mode oscillation. In the high frequency range (a few MHz), electron-drift azimuthal oscillations have been detected in recent experiments, in line with the oscillations measured by Esipchuk and Tilinin in the 1970’s. Even though these low and high frequency azimuthal oscillations have been known for quite some time already, the physics behind them are not yet clear and their possible relation with the anomalous diffusion process remains an unknown. This work aims at analysing from a theoretical point of view and via computer simulations the possible relation between the azimuthal oscillations and the anomalous electron transport in HET. In order to achieve this main objective, two approaches are considered: local linear stability analyses and global linear stability analyses. The use of local linear stability analyses shall allow identifying the dominant terms in the promotion of the oscillations. However, these analyses do not take into account properly the axial variation of the plasma properties along the thruster. On the other hand, global linear stability analyses do account for these axial variations and shall allow determining how the azimuthal oscillations are promoted and their possible relation with the electron transport.

Desarrollo de un Modelo de Gestión de Riesgos Operacionales basado en las Directrices del Comité de Basilea

La presente investigación tiene como objetivo principal diseñar un Modelo de Gestión de Riesgos Operacionales (MGRO) según las Directrices de los Acuerdos II y III del Comité de Supervisión Bancaria de Basilea del Banco de Pagos Internacionales (CSBB-BPI). Se considera importante realizar un estudio sobre este tema dado que son los riesgos operacionales (OpR) los responsables en gran medida de las últimas crisis financieras mundiales y por la dificultad para detectarlos en las organizaciones. Se ha planteado un modelo de gestión subdividido en dos vías de influencias. La primera acoge el paradigma holístico en el que se considera que hay múltiples maneras de percibir un proceso cíclico, así como las herramientas para observar, conocer y entender el objeto o sujeto percibido. La segunda vía la representa el paradigma totalizante, en el que se obtienen datos tanto cualitativos como cuantitativos, los cuales son complementarios entre si. Por otra parte, este trabajo plantea el diseño de un programa informático de OpR Cualitativo, que ha sido diseñado para determinar la raíz de los riesgos en las organizaciones y su Valor en Riesgo Operacional (OpVaR) basado en el método del indicador básico. Aplicando el ciclo holístico al caso de estudio, se obtuvo el siguiente diseño de investigación: no experimental, univariable, transversal descriptiva, contemporánea, retrospectiva, de fuente mixta, cualitativa (fenomenológica y etnográfica) y cuantitativa (descriptiva y analítica). La toma de decisiones y recolección de información se realizó en dos fases en la unidad de estudio. En la primera se tomó en cuenta la totalidad de la empresa Corpoelec-EDELCA, en la que se presentó un universo estadístico de 4271 personas, una población de 2390 personas y una unidad de muestreo de 87 personas. Se repitió el proceso en una segunda fase, para la Central Hidroeléctrica Simón Bolívar, y se determinó un segundo universo estadístico de 300 trabajadores, una población de 191 personas y una muestra de 58 profesionales. Como fuentes de recolección de información se utilizaron fuentes primarias y secundarias. Para recabar la información primaria se realizaron observaciones directas, dos encuestas para detectar las áreas y procesos con mayor nivel de riesgos y se diseñó un cuestionario combinado con otra encuesta (ad hoc) para establecer las estimaciones de frecuencia y severidad de pérdidas operacionales. La información de fuentes secundarias se extrajo de las bases de datos de Corpoelec-EDELCA, de la IEA, del Banco Mundial, del CSBB-BPI, de la UPM y de la UC at Berkeley, entre otras. Se establecieron las distribuciones de frecuencia y de severidad de pérdidas operacionales como las variables independientes y el OpVaR como la variable dependiente. No se realizó ningún tipo de seguimiento o control a las variables bajo análisis, ya que se consideraron estas para un instante especifico y solo se determinan con la finalidad de establecer la existencia y valoración puntual de los OpR en la unidad de estudio. El análisis cualitativo planteado en el MGRO, permitió detectar que en la unidad de investigación, el 67% de los OpR detectados provienen de dos fuentes principales: procesos (32%) y eventos externos (35%). Adicionalmente, la validación del MGRO en Corpoelec-EDELCA, permitió detectar que el 63% de los OpR en la organización provienen de tres categorías principales, siendo los fraudes externos los presentes con mayor regularidad y severidad de pérdidas en la organización. La exposición al riesgo se determinó fundamentándose en la adaptación del concepto de OpVaR que generalmente se utiliza para series temporales y que en el caso de estudio presenta la primicia de aplicarlo a datos cualitativos transformados con la escala Likert. La posibilidad de utilizar distribuciones de probabilidad típicas para datos cuantitativos en distribuciones de frecuencia y severidad de pérdidas con datos de origen cualitativo fueron analizadas. Para el 64% de los OpR estudiados se obtuvo que la frecuencia tiene un comportamiento semejante al de la distribución de probabilidad de Poisson y en un 55% de los casos para la severidad de pérdidas se obtuvo a las log-normal como las distribuciones de probabilidad más comunes, con lo que se concluyó que los enfoques sugeridos por el BCBS-BIS para series de tiempo son aplicables a los datos cualitativos. Obtenidas las distribuciones de frecuencia y severidad de pérdidas, se convolucionaron estas implementando el método de Montecarlo, con lo que se obtuvieron los enfoques de distribuciones de pérdidas (LDA) para cada uno de los OpR. El OpVaR se dedujo como lo sugiere el CSBB-BPI del percentil 99,9 o 99% de cada una de las LDA, obteniéndose que los OpR presentan un comportamiento similar al sistema financiero, resultando como los de mayor peligrosidad los que se ubican con baja frecuencia y alto impacto, por su dificultad para ser detectados y monitoreados. Finalmente, se considera que el MGRO permitirá a los agentes del mercado y sus grupos de interés conocer con efectividad, fiabilidad y eficiencia el status de sus entidades, lo que reducirá la incertidumbre de sus inversiones y les permitirá establecer una nueva cultura de gestión en sus organizaciones. ABSTRACT This research has as main objective the design of a Model for Operational Risk Management (MORM) according to the guidelines of Accords II and III of the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision of the Bank for International Settlements (BCBS- BIS). It is considered important to conduct a study on this issue since operational risks (OpR) are largely responsible for the recent world financial crisis and due to the difficulty in detecting them in organizations. A management model has been designed which is divided into two way of influences. The first supports the holistic paradigm in which it is considered that there are multiple ways of perceiving a cyclical process and contains the tools to observe, know and understand the subject or object perceived. The second way is the totalizing paradigm, in which both qualitative and quantitative data are obtained, which are complementary to each other. Moreover, this paper presents the design of qualitative OpR software which is designed to determine the root of risks in organizations and their Operational Value at Risk (OpVaR) based on the basic indicator approach. Applying the holistic cycle to the case study, the following research design was obtained: non- experimental, univariate, descriptive cross-sectional, contemporary, retrospective, mixed-source, qualitative (phenomenological and ethnographic) and quantitative (descriptive and analytical). Decision making and data collection was conducted in two phases in the study unit. The first took into account the totality of the Corpoelec-EDELCA company, which presented a statistical universe of 4271 individuals, a population of 2390 individuals and a sampling unit of 87 individuals. The process was repeated in a second phase to the Simon Bolivar Hydroelectric Power Plant, and a second statistical universe of 300 workers, a population of 191 people and a sample of 58 professionals was determined. As sources of information gathering primary and secondary sources were used. To obtain the primary information direct observations were conducted and two surveys to identify the areas and processes with higher risks were designed. A questionnaire was combined with an ad hoc survey to establish estimates of frequency and severity of operational losses was also considered. The secondary information was extracted from the databases of Corpoelec-EDELCA, IEA, the World Bank, the BCBS-BIS, UPM and UC at Berkeley, among others. The operational loss frequency distributions and the operational loss severity distributions were established as the independent variables and OpVaR as the dependent variable. No monitoring or control of the variables under analysis was performed, as these were considered for a specific time and are determined only for the purpose of establishing the existence and timely assessment of the OpR in the study unit. Qualitative analysis raised in the MORM made it possible to detect that in the research unit, 67% of detected OpR come from two main sources: external processes (32%) and external events (35%). Additionally, validation of the MORM in Corpoelec-EDELCA, enabled to estimate that 63% of OpR in the organization come from three main categories, with external fraud being present more regularly and greater severity of losses in the organization. Risk exposure is determined basing on adapting the concept of OpVaR generally used for time series and in the case study it presents the advantage of applying it to qualitative data transformed with the Likert scale. The possibility of using typical probability distributions for quantitative data in loss frequency and loss severity distributions with data of qualitative origin were analyzed. For the 64% of OpR studied it was found that the frequency has a similar behavior to that of the Poisson probability distribution and 55% of the cases for loss severity it was found that the log-normal were the most common probability distributions. It was concluded that the approach suggested by the BCBS-BIS for time series can be applied to qualitative data. Once obtained the distributions of loss frequency and severity have been obtained they were subjected to convolution implementing the Monte Carlo method. Thus the loss distribution approaches (LDA) were obtained for each of the OpR. The OpVaR was derived as suggested by the BCBS-BIS 99.9 percentile or 99% of each of the LDA. It was determined that the OpR exhibits a similar behavior to the financial system, being the most dangerous those with low frequency and high impact for their difficulty in being detected and monitored. Finally, it is considered that the MORM will allows market players and their stakeholders to know with effectiveness, efficiency and reliability the status of their entities, which will reduce the uncertainty of their investments and enable them to establish a new management culture in their organizations.