Towards a Theoretical Understating of How to Study the State: Governmentality, Power and Governmental Regimes

Artículo teórico que se origina a partir de un proyecto más amplio que investiga la construcción del Plan Nacional del Buen Vivir 2013-2017 (PNBV 2013-2017) en Ecuador. Su primordial preocupación teórica es responder a la siguiente pregunta: cómo estudiar los procesos de formación del Estado en Ecuador desde el año 2008. El documento responde a esta amplia cuestión argumentando, a nivel general, que el Estado se reproduce en parte mediante la creación de espacios donde efectivamente puede intervenir en la sociedad. Este trabajo se refiere, por lo tanto, con el examen de las formas particulares en que los Estados penetran la sociedad a través de regímenes gubernamentales. En términos más específicos, este trabajo sostiene que los procesos de intervención del Estado pueden ser ampliamente entendidos por la observación de tres procesos complementarios e interrelacionados: a. La forma en la que el Estado busca legitimar su presencia en la sociedad; b. Prácticas gubernamentales: las formas en las que el Estado aprende, organiza, distribuye y en última instancia crea campos específicos de intervención; c. El ejercicio de diferentes y complementarias modalidades de poder. En base a los citados elementos analiza la construcción de un "régimen gubernamental".

Environmental assessment and the built environment : a highway engineer's perspective

This paper is an engineer's appreciation of environmental assessment with particular reference to highway development. While scheme-related Environmental Assessment for individual development may identify particular potential impacts, and may avoid or minimise some of the problems, in many cases it may be too late to take such actions. Ideally, Environmental Assessment should commence at the Strategic Level to cover policies, plan and programmes, and the scheme-related Environmental Assessments for individual projects should supplement those in the framework of Strategic Level. The utimate target is to assess the policy for their contribution to effecting sustainable development. Whole Life Environmental Impacts should be considered. These are the full impact consideration from planning, design and choice of materials, construction, operation and finally decommission. Most of the Environmental Assessments have not included the Whole Life Environmental Impacts. There is only limited monitoring in the operation stage after the construction of the scheme is complete, therefore, subsequent Environmental Assessments cannot benefit from the feedback of the scheme. No development should cost the Earth, hence Environmental Assessments have to be carried out thoroughly to serve as one of the instruments to meet the need of sustainable development.

Glucosinolate-accumulating S-cells in Arabidopsis leaves and flower stalks undergo programmed cell death at early stages of differentiation

Plant secondary metabolites glucosinolates (GSL) have important functions in plant resistance to herbivores and pathogens. We identified all major GSL that are accumulated in S-cells in Arabidopsis by MALDI-TOF MS, and estimated by LC-MS that the total GSL concentration in these cells is above 130 mM. The precise locations of the S-cells outside phloem bundles in rosette and cauline leaves and in flower stalks were visualised using sulphur mapping by cryo-SEM/EDX. S-cells contain up to 40% of total sulphur in flower stalk tissues. S-cells in emerging flower stalks and developing leaf tissues show typical signs of Programmed Cell Death (PCD) or apoptosis, such as chromatin condensation in the nucleus and blebbing of the membranes. TUNEL staining for DNA double strand breaks confirmed PCD in S-cells in postmeristematic tissues in the flower stalk as well as in the leaf. Our results show that S-cells in postmeristematic tissues proceed to an extreme degree of metabolic specialisation besides PCD. Accumulation and maintenance of a high concentration of GSL in these cells are accompanied by degradation of a number of cell organelles. The substantial changes in the cell composition during S-cell differentiation indicate the importance of this particular GSL-based phloem defence system. The specific anatomy of the S-cells and ability to accumulate specialised secondary metabolites is similar to that of the non-articulated laticifer cells in latex plants and thus indicates a common evolutionary origin.

Integrating socio-economics and ecology: a taxonomy of quantitative methods and a review of their use in agro-ecology

Answering many of the critical questions in conservation, development and environmental management requires integrating the social and natural sciences. However, understanding the array of available quantitative methods and their associated terminology presents a major barrier to successful collaboration. We provide an overview of quantitative socio-economic methods that distils their complexity into a simple taxonomy. We outline how each has been used in conjunction with ecological models to address questions relating to the management of socio-ecological systems. We review the application of social and ecological quantitative concepts to agro-ecology and classify the approaches used to integrate the two disciplines. Our review included all published integrated models from 2003 to 2008 in 27 journals that publish agricultural modelling research. Although our focus is on agro-ecology, many of the results are broadly applicable to other fields involving an interaction between human activities and ecology. We found 36 papers that integrated social and ecological concepts in a quantitative model. Four different approaches to integration were used, depending on the scale at which human welfare was quantified. Most models viewed humans as pure profit maximizers, both when calculating welfare and predicting behaviour. Synthesis and applications. We reached two main conclusions based on our taxonomy and review. The first is that quantitative methods that extend predictions of behaviour and measurements of welfare beyond a simple market value basis are underutilized by integrated models. The second is that the accuracy of prediction for integrated models remains largely unquantified. Addressing both problems requires researchers to reach a common understanding of modelling goals and data requirements during the early stages of a project.

Unravelling the rationale of 'overgrazing' and stocking rates in the beef production systems of Central Brazil using a bi-criteria compromise programming model

In Central Brazil, the long-term sustainability of beef cattle systems is under threat over vast tracts of farming areas, as more than half of the 50 million hectares of sown pastures are suffering from degradation. Overgrazing practised to maintain high stocking rates is regarded as one of the main causes. High stocking rates are deliberate and crucial decisions taken by the farmers, which appear paradoxical, even irrational given the state of knowledge regarding the consequences of overgrazing. The phenomenon however appears inextricably linked with the objectives that farmers hold. In this research those objectives were elicited first and from their ranking two, ‘asset value of cattle (representing cattle ownership)' and ‘present value of economic returns', were chosen to develop an original bi-criteria Compromise Programming model to test various hypotheses postulated to explain the overgrazing behaviour. As part of the model a pasture productivity index is derived to estimate the pasture recovery cost. Different scenarios based on farmers' attitudes towards overgrazing, pasture costs and capital availability were analysed. The results of the model runs show that benefits from holding more cattle can outweigh the increased pasture recovery and maintenance costs. This result undermines the hypothesis that farmers practise overgrazing because they are unaware or uncaring about overgrazing costs. An appropriate approach to the problem of pasture degradation requires information on the economics, and its interplay with farmers' objectives, for a wide range of pasture recovery and maintenance methods. Seen within the context of farmers' objectives, some level of overgrazing appears rational. Advocacy of the simple ‘no overgrazing' rule is an insufficient strategy to maintain the long-term sustainability of the beef production systems in Central Brazil.

Unravelling the rationale of 'overgrazing' and stocking rates in the beef production systems of Central Brazil using a bi-criteria compromise programming model

In Central Brazil, the long-term, sustainability of beef cattle systems is under threat over vast tracts of farming areas, as more than half of the 50 million hectares of sown pastures are suffering from. degradation. Overgrazing practised to maintain high stocking rates is regarded as one of the main causes. High stocking rates are deliberate and crucial decisions taken by the farmers, which appear paradoxical, even irrational given the state of knowledge regarding the consequences of overgrazing. The phenomenon however appears inextricably linked with the objectives that farmers hold. In this research those objectives were elicited first and from their ranking two, 'asset value of cattle (representing cattle ownership and 'present value of economic returns', were chosen to develop an original bi-criteria Compromise Programming model to test various hypotheses postulated to explain the overgrazing behaviour. As part of the model a pasture productivity index is derived to estimate the pasture recovery cost. Different scenarios based on farmers' attitudes towards overgrazing, pasture costs and capital availability were analysed. The results of the model runs show that benefits from holding more cattle can outweigh the increased pasture recovery and maintenance costs. This result undermines the hypothesis that farmers practise overgrazing because they are unaware or uncaring caring about overgrazing costs. An appropriate approach to the problem of pasture degradation requires information on the economics,and its interplay with farmers' objectives, for a wide range of pasture recovery and maintenance methods. Seen within the context of farmers' objectives, some level of overgrazing appears rational. Advocacy of the simple 'no overgrazing' rule is an insufficient strategy to maintain the long-term sustainability of the beef production systems in Central Brazil. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Arthropod diversity and community structure in relation to land use in the mekong delta, vietnam

Declining biodiversity in agro-ecosystems, caused by intensification of production or expansion of monocultures, is associated with the emergence of agricultural pests. Understanding how land-use and management control crop-associated biodiversity is, therefore, one of the key steps towards the prediction and maintenance of natural pest-control. Here we report on relationships between land-use variables and arthropod community attributes (for example, species diversity, abundance and guild structure) across a diversification gradient in a rice-dominated landscape in the Mekong delta, Vietnam. We show that rice habitats contained the most diverse arthropod communities, compared with other uncultivated and cultivated land-use types. In addition, arthropod species density and Simpson's diversity in flower, vegetable and fruit habitats was positively related to rice cover in the local landscape. However, across the landscape as a whole, reduction in heterogeneity and the amount of uncultivated cover was associated, generally, with a loss of diversity. Furthermore, arthropod species density in tillering and flowering stages of rice was positively related to crop and vegetation richness, respectively, in the local landscape. Differential effects on feeding guilds were also observed in rice-associated communities with the proportional abundance of predators increasing and the proportional abundance of detritivores decreasing with increased landscape rice cover. Thus, we identify a range of rather complex, sometimes contradictory patterns concerning the impact of rice cover and landscape heterogeneity on arthropod community attributes. Importantly, we conclude that that land-use change associated with expansion of monoculture rice need not automatically impact diversity and functioning of the arthropod community.

Relationship between resistance factors and treatment efficacy when bromadiolone was used against anticoagulant-resistant Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus Berk.) in Wales

We investigated the relationship between the severity and incidence of resistance among Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) on a farm in Wales and the subsequent outcome of a practical rodent control operation. Bromadiolone resistance factors were estimated for rats trapped on the farm using the blood clotting response test, and were found to be 2 to 3 for male rats and approximately 6 for females. The incidence of resistance in the rat population was high. Infestation size was estimated by census baiting and tracking, and was found to be substantial, with a maximum of 6.5 kg of bait being eaten on a single night. A proprietary rodenticide (Deadline (TM)), containing 0.005% bromadiolone, was used to control the infestation. The duration of baiting was 35 days and, according to the two methods of assessment used, treatment success was in the region of 87 and 93%. No evidence was observed of a significant impact of resistance on the rat control operation, and the remaining rats of this very heavy infestation would probably have been controlled if baiting had continued for longer.

Genotypic and phenotypic diversity of a baculovirus population within an individual insect host

It is becoming increasingly apparent that many pathogen populations, including those of insects, show high levels of genotypic variation. Baculoviruses are known to be highly variable, with isolates collected from the same species in different geographical locations frequently showing genetic variation and differences in their biology. More recent Studies at smaller scales have also shown that virus DNA profiles from individual larvae can show polymorphisms within and between populations of the same species. Here, we investigate the genotypic and phenotypic variation of an insect baculovirus infection within a single insect host. Twenty four genotypically distinct nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV) variants were isolated from an individual pine beauty moth, Panolis flammea, caterpillar by in vivo cloning techniques. No variant appeared to be dominant in the population. The Pafl NPV variants have been mapped using three restriction endonucleases and shown to contain three hypervariable regions containing insertions of 70-750 bp. Comparison of seven of these variants in an alternative host, Mamestra brassicae, demonstrated that the variants differed significantly in both pathogenicity and speed of kill. The generation and maintenance of pathogen heterogeneity are discussed. (c) 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Big and little Meccano

The emergence of the mechanical bond during the past 25 years is giving chemistry a fillip in more ways than one. While its arrival on the scene is already impacting materials science and molecular nanotechnology, it is providing a new lease of life to chemical synthesis where mechanical bond formation Occurs as a consequence of the all-important templation Orchestrated by molecular recognition and self-assembly. The way in which covalent bond formation activates noncovalent bonding interactions, switching on molecular recognition that leads to self-assembly, and the template-directed synthesis of mechanically interlocked molecules-of which the so-called catenanes and rotaxanes may be regarded as the prototypes-has introduced a level of integration into chemical synthesis that has not previously been attained jointly at the supramolecular and molecular levels. The challenge now is to carry this I vel of integration during molecular synthesis beyond relatively small molecules into the realms of precisely functionalized extended molecular Structures and superstructures that perform functions in a collective manner as the key sources of instruction, activation, and performance in multi-component integrated Circuits and devices. These forays into organic chemistry by a scientific nomad are traced through thick and thin from the Athens of the North to the Windy City by Lake Michigan with interludes on the edge of the Canadian Shield beside Lake Ontario, in the Socialist Republic of South Yorkshire, on the Plains of Cheshire beside the Wirral, in the Midlands in the Heartland of Albion, and in the City of Angels beside the Peaceful Sea. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

E-commerce system simulation for construction and demolition waste exchange

This article introduces a quantitative approach to e-commerce system evaluation based on the theory of process simulation. The general concept of e-commerce system simulation is presented based on the considerations of some limitations in e-commerce system development such as the huge amount of initial investments of time and money, and the long period from business planning to system development, then to system test and operation, and finally to exact return; in other words, currently used system analysis and development method cannot tell investors about some keen attentions such as how good their e-commerce system could be, how many investment repayments they could have, and which area they should improve regarding the initial business plan. In order to exam the value and its potential effects of an e-commerce business plan, it is necessary to use a quantitative evaluation approach and the authors of this article believe that process simulation is an appropriate option. The overall objective of this article is to apply the theory of process simulation to e-commerce system evaluation, and the authors will achieve this though an experimental study on a business plan for online construction and demolition waste exchange. The methodologies adopted in this article include literature review, system analysis and development, simulation modelling and analysis, and case study. The results from this article include the concept of e-commerce system simulation, a comprehensive review of simulation methods adopted in e-commerce system evaluation, and a real case study of applying simulation to e-commerce system evaluation. Furthermore, the authors hope that the adoption and implementation of the process simulation approach can effectively support business decision-making, and improve the efficiency of e-commerce systems.

Using probiotics and prebiotics to improve gut health

Recent molecular-based investigations have confirmed the species diversity and metabolic complexity of the human gut microbiota. It is also increasingly clear that the human gut microbiota plays a crucial role in host health, both as a source of infection and environmental insult and, conversely, in protection against disease and maintenance of gut function. Although little is known about the health impact of the dominant groups of gut bacteria it is generally accepted that bifidobacteria and lactobacilli are important components of what might be termed the beneficial gut microbiota. The microbiota management tools of probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics have been developed and, indeed, commercialized over the past few decades with the expressed purpose of increasing numbers of bifidobacteria and/or lactobacilli within the gastrointestinal tract.

The effects of maternal depression and parental conflict on children's peer play

Background Little is known about the relative effects of exposure to postnatal depression and parental conflict on the social functioning of school-aged children. This is, in part, because of a lack of specificity in the measurement of child and parental behaviour and a reliance on children's reports of their hypothetical responses to conflict in play. Methods In the course of a prospective longitudinal study of children of postnatally depressed and well women, 5-year-old children were videotaped at home with a friend in a naturalistic dressing-up play setting. As well as examining possible associations between the occurrence of postnatal depression and the quality of the children's interactions, we investigated the influence of parental conflict and co-operation, and the continuity of maternal depression. The quality of the current mother-child relationship was considered as a possible mediating factor. Results Exposure to postnatal depression was associated with increased likelihood, among boys, of displaying physical aggression in play with their friend. However, parental conflict mediated the effects of postnatal depression on active aggression during play, and was also associated with displays of autonomy and intense conflict. While there were no gender effects in terms of the degree or intensity of aggressive behaviours, girls were more likely to express aggression verbally using denigration and gloating whereas boys were more likely to display physical aggression via interpersonal and object struggles. Conclusions The study provided evidence for the specificity of effects, with strong links between parental and child peer conflict. These effects appear to arise from direct exposure to parental conflict, rather than indirectly, through mother-child interactions.

The influence of changing nicotine to tar ratios on human puffing behaviour and perceived sensory response

Rationale. Smokers modify their smoking behaviour when switching from their usual product to higher or lower tar and nicotine-yield cigarettes. Objective. The aims of the current study were to assess the influence of varying nicotine yields at constant tar yield on human puffing measures, nicotine deliveries under human smoking conditions and the sensory response to mainstream cigarette smoke. These assessments would allow an evaluation of the degree of compensation and the various possible causes of changes, if any. Methods. The participants were 13 regular smokers of commercial or hand-rolled cigarettes. They were tested with four cigarettes, which exhibited a wide range of nicotine to 'tar' ratios at a relatively constant 'tar' yield. Their smoking behaviour was monitored by placing the test cigarettes into an orifice-type holder/flowmeter attached to a custom-built smoker behaviour analyser. In addition, a comprehensive sensory evaluation of the products was carried out. Results. The differences in the nicotine to tar ratios of the samples did not significantly influence the puffing behaviour patterns, i.e. puff number and interval, total and average puff volume, integrated pressure and puff duration. Additionally the pre- to post-exhaled CO boosts were not significantly influenced by the experimental samples used in the study. However, the nicotine yields obtained by the smokers were significantly influenced by the machine-smoked nicotine yields or the nicotine to tar ratios of the samples. The machine-smoked nicotine yields were highly correlated with the nicotine yields obtained under human smoking conditions. For the sensory evaluation, there was only a significant difference between the samples in the intensity of the impact. Conclusion. These observations imply that these puffing variables are not controlled by the nicotine yield of the cigarette.

Novel actuator design to overcome stiction and backlash for low-velocity applications

This paper presents a novel actuator design that ameliorates or eliminates the effects of non-linearities that are characteristically present in geared actuator systems and which are very problematic for low velocity applications. The design centres on the providing an internal rotational element within a single actuator to ensure operation of actuator away from the stiction region, whilst allowing zero velocity external output of the actuator. The construction has the added advantage of substantially reducing backlash. The prototype comprises two commercially available servo-actuators to test the principle of operation and results presented indicate that the concept is worth exploring further.