A hydrogen-bonded polar network in the core of the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor is a fulcrum for biased agonism:lessons from class B crystal structuress

The glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor is a class B G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that is a key target for treatments for type II diabetes and obesity. This receptor, like other class B GPCRs, displays biased agonism, though the physiologic significance of this is yet to be elucidated. Previous work has implicated R2.60190 , N3.43240 , Q7.49394 , and H6.52363 as key residues involved in peptide-mediated biased agonism, with R2.60190 , N3.43240 , and Q7.49394 predicted to form a polar interaction network. In this study, we used novel insight gained from recent crystal structures of the transmembrane domains of the glucagon and corticotropin releasing factor 1 (CRF1) receptors to develop improved models of the GLP-1 receptor that predict additional key molecular interactions with these amino acids. We have introduced E6.53364 A, N3.43240 Q, Q7.49493N, and N3.43240 Q/Q7.49 Q/Q7.49493N mutations to probe the role of predicted H-bonding and charge-charge interactions in driving cAMP, calcium, or extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling. A polar interaction between E6.53364 and R2.60190 was predicted to be important for GLP-1- and exendin-4-, but not oxyntomodulin-mediated cAMP formation and also ERK1/2 phosphorylation. In contrast, Q7.49394 , but not R2.60190 /E6.53364 was critical for calcium mobilization for all three peptides. Mutation of N3.43240 and Q7.49394 had differential effects on individual peptides, providing evidence for molecular differences in activation transition. Collectively, this work expands our understanding of peptide-mediated signaling from the GLP-1 receptor and the key role that the central polar network plays in these events.

GPCR-styrene maleic acid lipid particles (GPCR-SMALPs):their nature and potential

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) form the largest class of membrane proteins and are an important target for therapeutic drugs. These receptors are highly dynamic proteins sampling a range of conformational states in order to fulfil their complex signalling roles. In order to fully understand GPCR signalling mechanisms it is necessary to extract the receptor protein out of the plasma membrane. Historically this has universally required detergents which inadvertently strip away the annulus of lipid in close association with the receptor and disrupt lateral pressure exerted by the bilayer. Detergent-solubilized GPCRs are very unstable which presents a serious hurdle to characterization by biophysical methods. A range of strategies have been developed to ameliorate the detrimental effect of removing the receptor from the membrane including amphipols and reconstitution into nanodics stabilized by membrane scaffolding proteins (MSPs) but they all require exposure to detergent. Poly(styrene-co-maleic acid) (SMA) incorporates into membranes and spontaneously forms nanoscale poly(styrene-co-maleic acid) lipid particles (SMALPs), effectively acting like a 'molecular pastry cutter' to 'solubilize' GPCRs in the complete absence of detergent at any stage and with preservation of the native annular lipid throughout the process. GPCR-SMALPs have similar pharmacological properties to membrane-bound receptor, exhibit enhanced stability compared with detergent-solubilized receptors and being non-proteinaceous in nature, are fully compatible with downstream biophysical analysis of the encapsulated GPCR.

Receptor activity-modifying proteins 2 and 3 generate adrenomedullin receptor subtypes with distinct molecular properties

Adrenomedullin (AM) is a peptide hormone with numerous effects in the vascular systems. AM signals through the AM1 and AM2 receptors formed by the obligate heterodimerization of a G protein-coupled receptor, the calcitonin receptor-like receptor (CLR), and receptor activity-modifying proteins (RAMP) 2 and 3, respectively. These different CLR-RAMP interactions yield discrete receptor pharmacology and physiological effects. The effective design of therapeutics that target the individual AM receptors is dependent on understanding the molecular details of the effects of RAMPs on CLR. To understand the role of RAMPs 2 and 3 on the activation and conformation of the CLR subunit of AM receptors we mutated 68 individual amino acids in the juxtamembrane region of CLR, a key region for activation of AM receptors and determined the effects on cAMP signalling. Sixteen CLR mutations had differential effects between the AM1 and AM2 receptors. Accompanying this, independent molecular modelling of the full-length AM-bound AM1 and AM2 receptors predicted differences in the binding pocket, and differences in the electrostatic potential of the two AM receptors. Druggability analysis indicated unique features that could be used to develop selective small molecule ligands for each receptor. The interaction of RAMP2 or RAMP3 with CLR induces conformational variation in the juxtamembrane region, yielding distinct binding pockets, probably via an allosteric mechanism. These subtype-specific differences have implications for the design of therapeutics aimed at specific AM receptors and for understanding the mechanisms by which accessory proteins affect G protein-coupled receptor function.

The extracellular surface of the GLP-1 receptor is a molecular trigger for biased agonism

Ligand-directed signal bias offers opportunities for sculpting molecular events, with the promise of better, safer therapeutics. Critical to the exploitation of signal bias is an understanding of the molecular events coupling ligand binding to intracellular signaling. Activation of class B G protein-coupled receptors is driven by interaction of the peptide N terminus with the receptor core. To understand how this drives signaling, we have used advanced analytical methods that enable separation of effects on pathway-specific signaling from those that modify agonist affinity and mapped the functional consequence of receptor modification onto three-dimensional models of a receptor-ligand complex. This yields molecular insights into the initiation of receptor activation and the mechanistic basis for biased agonism. Our data reveal that peptide agonists can engage different elements of the receptor extracellular face to achieve effector coupling and biased signaling providing a foundation for rational design of biased agonists.

An allosteric role for receptor activity-modifying proteins in defining GPCR pharmacology

G protein-coupled receptors are allosteric proteins that control transmission of external signals to regulate cellular response. Although agonist binding promotes canonical G protein signalling transmitted through conformational changes, G protein-coupled receptors also interact with other proteins. These include other G protein-coupled receptors, other receptors and channels, regulatory proteins and receptor-modifying proteins, notably receptor activity-modifying proteins (RAMPs). RAMPs have at least 11 G protein-coupled receptor partners, including many class B G protein-coupled receptors. Prototypic is the calcitonin receptor, with altered ligand specificity when co-expressed with RAMPs. To gain molecular insight into the consequences of this protein–protein interaction, we combined molecular modelling with mutagenesis of the calcitonin receptor extracellular domain, assessed in ligand binding and functional assays. Although some calcitonin receptor residues are universally important for peptide interactions (calcitonin, amylin and calcitonin gene-related peptide) in calcitonin receptor alone or with receptor activity-modifying protein, others have RAMP-dependent effects, whereby mutations decreased amylin/calcitonin gene-related peptide potency substantially only when RAMP was present. Remarkably, the key residues were completely conserved between calcitonin receptor and AMY receptors, and between subtypes of AMY receptor that have different ligand preferences. Mutations at the interface between calcitonin receptor and RAMP affected ligand pharmacology in a RAMP-dependent manner, suggesting that RAMP may allosterically influence the calcitonin receptor conformation. Supporting this, molecular dynamics simulations suggested that the calcitonin receptor extracellular N-terminal domain is more flexible in the presence of receptor activity-modifying protein 1. Thus, RAMPs may act in an allosteric manner to generate a spectrum of unique calcitonin receptor conformational states, explaining the pharmacological preferences of calcitonin receptor-RAMP complexes. This provides novel insight into our understanding of G protein-coupled receptor-protein interaction that is likely broadly applicable for this receptor class.

beta-Arrestin1 modulates lymphoid enhancer factor transcriptional activity through interaction with phosphorylated dishevelled proteins.

One aspect of the function of the beta-arrestins is to serve as scaffold or adapter molecules coupling G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) to signal transduction pathways distinct from traditional second messenger pathways. Here we report the identification of Dishevelled 1 and Dishevelled 2 (Dvl1 and Dvl2) as beta-arrestin1 (betaarr1) interacting proteins. Dvl proteins participate as key intermediates in signal transmission from the seven membrane-spanning Frizzled receptors leading to inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta), stabilization of beta-catenin, and activation of the lymphoid enhancer factor (LEF) transcription factor. We find that phosphorylation of Dvl strongly enhances its interaction with betaarr1, suggesting that regulation of Dvl phosphorylation and subsequent interaction with betaarr1 may play a key role in the activation of the LEF transcription pathway. Because coexpression of the Dvl kinases, CK1epsilon and PAR-1, with Dvl synergistically activates LEF reporter gene activity, we reasoned that coexpression of betaarr1 with Dvl might also affect LEF-dependent gene activation. Interestingly, whereas betaarr1 or Dvl alone leads to low-level stimulation of LEF (2- to 5-fold), coexpression of betaarr1 with either Dvl1 or Dvl2 leads to a synergistic activation of LEF (up to 16-fold). Additional experiments with LiCl as an inhibitor of GSK-3beta kinase activity indicate that the step affected by betaarr1 is upstream of GSK-3beta and most likely at the level of Dvl. These results identify betaarr1 as a regulator of Dvl-dependent LEF transcription and suggest that betaarr1 might serve as an adapter molecule that can couple Frizzled receptors and perhaps other GPCRs to these important transcription pathways.

Transcriptome and Functional Analysis of Carotid Body Glomus Cells

The carotid body (CB) is a major arterial chemoreceptor containing glomus cells that are activated by changes in arterial blood contents including oxygen. Despite significant advancement in the characterization of their physiological properties, our understanding on the underlying molecular machinery and signaling pathway in CB glomus cells is still limited.

To overcome these limitations, in chapter 1, I demonstrated the first transcriptome profile of CB glomus cells using single cell sequencing technology, which allowed us to uncover a set of abundantly expressed genes, including novel glomus cell-specific transcripts. These results revealed involvement of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling pathway, various types of ion channels, as well as atypical mitochondrial subunits in CB function. I also identified ligands for the mostly highly expressed GPCR (Olfr78) in CB glomus cells and examined this receptor’s role in CB mediated hypoxic ventilatory response.

Current knowledge of CB suggest glomus cells rely on unusual mitochondria for their sensitivity to hypoxia. I previously identified the atypical mitochondrial subunit Ndufa4l2 as a highly over-represented gene in CB glomus cells. In chapter 2, to investigate the functional significance of Ndufa4l2 in CB function, I phenotyped both Ndufa4l2 knockout mice and mice with conditional Ndufa4l2 deletion in CB glomus cells. I found that Ndufa4l2 is essential to the establishment of regular breathing after birth. Ablating Ndufa4l2 in postnatal CB glomus cells resulted in defective CB sensitivity to hypoxia as well as CB mediated hypoxic ventilatory response. Together, our data showed that Ndufa4l2 is critical to respiratory control and the oxygen sensitivity of CB glomus cells.

Suppression of the Insulin Receptors in Adult Schistosoma japonicum Impacts on Parasite Growth and Development: Further Evidence of Vaccine Potential

To further investigate the importance of insulin signaling in the growth, development, sexual maturation and egg production of adult schistosomes, we have focused attention on the insulin receptors (SjIRs) of Schistosoma japonicum, which we have previously cloned and partially characterised. We now show, by Biolayer Interferometry, that human insulin can bind the L1 subdomain (insulin binding domain) of recombinant (r)SjIR1 and rSjIR2 (designated SjLD1 and SjLD2) produced using the Drosophila S2 protein expression system. We have then used RNA interference (RNAi) to knock down the expression of the SjIRs in adult S. japonicum in vitro and show that, in addition to their reduced transcription, the transcript levels of other important downstream genes within the insulin pathway, associated with glucose metabolism and schistosome fecundity, were also impacted substantially. Further, a significant decrease in glucose uptake was observed in the SjIR-knockdown worms compared with luciferase controls. In vaccine/challenge experiments, we found that rSjLD1 and rSjLD2 depressed female growth, intestinal granuloma density and faecal egg production in S. japonicum in mice presented with a low dose challenge infection. These data re-emphasize the potential of the SjIRs as veterinary transmission blocking vaccine candidates against zoonotic schistosomiasis japonica in China and the Philippines.

Le rôle des acides gras oméga-3 sur la balance énergétique, la régulation de l’appétit, l’état émotionnel et l’implication du récepteur GPR120

L’obésité est un facteur de risque lié à des problèmes physiques, émotionnels et comportementaux. Aujourd’hui, l’alimentation est composée d’un régime typiquement occidental «Western diet» qui est riche en acides gras saturés (AGS) et pauvre en acides gras polyinsaturés (AGPI) tel que les oméga-3 (N-3) et occasionnant un déséquilibre du ratio alimentaire N-6/N-3. Ce déséquilibre est une des causes de la prévalence des maladies mentales y compris celles des troubles de l'humeur et de l’anxiété. L’acide docosahexaénoïque (ADH, 22: 6 n-3) est l’acide gras (AG) le plus abondant dans le cerveau et son accumulation est particulièrement élevée pendant la période périnatale. Il joue un rôle important dans le développement neuronal et d'autres fonctions du cerveau tel l'apprentissage et la mémoire. Des perturbations de l’environnement périnatal peuvent influencer à très long terme l’avenir de la descendance en la rendant plus susceptible de développer des problèmes d’obésité dans un contexte nutritionnel riche. On ignore cependant si le déficit alimentaire chez la mère et particulièrement en ADH aura un impact sur la motivation alimentaire de la progéniture. L’objectif principal de cette thèse est d’étudier le rôle potentiel des N-3 sur la balance énergétique, la motivation alimentaire, la dépression et le niveau d’anxiété des descendants de souris mâles adultes assujetties à une alimentation riche en gras. Nos données ont démontré qu‘un régime maternel déficitaire en ADH durant la période périnatale incitait la descendance à fournir plus d’effort afin d’obtenir un aliment palatable. Ceci entraînerait un dérèglement de l’homéostasie énergétique en augmentant le gain de poids et en diminuant l’activité locomotrice tout en exacerbant le comportement de type anxieux dès que les souris sont exposées à un milieu obésogène. Les acides gras libres (AGL) sont des nutriments essentiels fonctionnant comme des molécules de signalisation dans le cerveau en ayant des récepteurs qui jouent un rôle important dans le contrôle du métabolisme énergétique. Parmi eux, on distingue un récepteur couplé à la protéine G (GPCR), le GPR120. Ce récepteur activé par les AGPI ω-3 intervient dans les mécanismes anti-inflammatoires et insulino-résistants via les N-3. Une mutation dans le gène GPR120 occasionnée par une réduction de l’activité de signalisation du gène est liée à l’obésité humaine. L'objectif premier de cette deuxième étude était d’évaluer l'impact de la stimulation pharmacologique de GPR120 dans le système nerveux central (SNC) sur l'alimentation, les dépenses d'énergie, le comportement de type anxieux et la récompense alimentaire. Nos résultats démontrent qu’une injection centrale aiguë d'agoniste GPR120 III réduit la prise alimentaire ad libitum et la motivation alimentaire pour un aliment riche en gras et en sucre; ainsi que les comportements de type anxieux. L’injection centrale chronique (21 jours) de ce même agoniste GPR120 III transmis par une pompe osmotique a démontré que les souris placées sous diète hypercalorique (HFD n’ont présenté aucune modification lors de la prise alimentaire ni de gain de poids mais qu’il y avait comparativement au groupe de véhicule, une réduction du comportement de type anxieux, que ce soit dans le labyrinthe en croix surélevé (LCS) ou dans le test à champ ouvert (OFT). L’ADH est reconnu pour ses propriétés anorexigènes au niveau central. De plus, la stimulation des récepteurs de GPR120 au niveau du cerveau avec un agoniste synthétique peut produire un effet intense intervenir sur le comportement lié à l'alimentation des rongeurs. Trouver une approche visant à contrôler à la fois la neuroinflammation, la récompense alimentaire et les troubles émotionnels aiderait assurément au traitement de l'obésité et du diabète de type 2.

The Role of G Protein In Alcohol Related Behaviours Using Drosophila melanogaster As A Model

Ethanol, classified as a drug, affects the central nervous system, and its consumption has been linked to the development of several behaviours including tolerance and dependence. Alcohol tolerance is defined as the need for higher doses of alcohol to induce the same changes observed in the initial exposure or where repetitive exposures of the same alcohol dose induce a lower response. Ethanol has been shown to interact with numerous targets and ultimately influence both short and long term adaptation at the cellular and molecular level in brain [1]. These adaptation processes are likely to involve signalling molecules: our work has focussed on G proteins gene expression. Using both wild type and several mutant fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) as a model for behaviour and molecular studies, we observed significant increases in sedation time (ST50) in response to alcohol (P<0.001) Fig.A. We also observed a consistent and significant decrease of Gq protein mRNA expression in Drosophila dUNC and DopR2 mutants chronically exposed to alcohol (*P<0.05). Fig B. Method: Six male flies were observed in drosophila polystyrene 25 x 95mm transparent vial in between cotton plugs. To the top plug, 500uL of 100% ethanol was added. Time till 50% of the flies were sedated was recorded on each day following the schedule. Fig. C (n=4-6). Using RT-PCR, we also quantified G protein mRNA expression levels one hour post initial 30 minutes of ethanol expression on day 1 and day 3 relative to expression in naïve flies.(n=2) [A] Increase in sedation time indicative of tolerance in different mutant lines and wild type flies. Six male flies were used in each experiment and (n= 4-6. ***P<0.001 unpaired t tests). [B] RT-PCR results showing significant reduction in Gq mRNA in flies chronically exposed to alcohol. (n=2. *P<0.05) [C] Alcohol exposure schedule. (1) Kaun K.R., R. Azanchi, Z. Maung, J. Hirsh, U. Heberlein. (2011). A Drosophila model for alcohol reward. Nature Neuroscience. 14 (5), 612–619.

Microfluidic platforms for the characterization of in meso membrane protein crystallization

Membrane proteins, which reside in the membranes of cells, play a critical role in many important biological processes including cellular signaling, immune response, and material and energy transduction. Because of their key role in maintaining the environment within cells and facilitating intercellular interactions, understanding the function of these proteins is of tremendous medical and biochemical significance. Indeed, the malfunction of membrane proteins has been linked to numerous diseases including diabetes, cirrhosis of the liver, cystic fibrosis, cancer, Alzheimer's disease, hypertension, epilepsy, cataracts, tubulopathy, leukodystrophy, Leigh syndrome, anemia, sensorineural deafness, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.1-3 However, the structure of many of these proteins and the changes in their structure that lead to disease-related malfunctions are not well understood. Additionally, at least 60% of the pharmaceuticals currently available are thought to target membrane proteins, despite the fact that their exact mode of operation is not known.4-6 Developing a detailed understanding of the function of a protein is achieved by coupling biochemical experiments with knowledge of the structure of the protein. Currently the most common method for obtaining three-dimensional structure information is X-ray crystallography. However, no a priori methods are currently available to predict crystallization conditions for a given protein.7-14 This limitation is currently overcome by screening a large number of possible combinations of precipitants, buffer, salt, and pH conditions to identify conditions that are conducive to crystal nucleation and growth.7,9,11,15-24 Unfortunately, these screening efforts are often limited by difficulties associated with quantity and purity of available protein samples. While the two most significant bottlenecks for protein structure determination in general are the (i) obtaining sufficient quantities of high quality protein samples and (ii) growing high quality protein crystals that are suitable for X-ray structure determination,7,20,21,23,25-47 membrane proteins present additional challenges. For crystallization it is necessary to extract the membrane proteins from the cellular membrane. However, this process often leads to denaturation. In fact, membrane proteins have proven to be so difficult to crystallize that of the more than 66,000 structures deposited in the Protein Data Bank,48 less than 1% are for membrane proteins, with even fewer present at high resolution (< 2Å)4,6,49 and only a handful are human membrane proteins.49 A variety of strategies including detergent solubilization50-53 and the use of artificial membrane-like environments have been developed to circumvent this challenge.43,53-55 In recent years, the use of a lipidic mesophase as a medium for crystallizing membrane proteins has been demonstrated to increase success for a wide range of membrane proteins, including human receptor proteins.54,56-62 This in meso method for membrane protein crystallization, however, is still by no means routine due to challenges related to sample preparation at sub-microliter volumes and to crystal harvesting and X-ray data collection. This dissertation presents various aspects of the development of a microfluidic platform to enable high throughput in meso membrane protein crystallization at a level beyond the capabilities of current technologies. Microfluidic platforms for protein crystallization and other lab-on-a-chip applications have been well demonstrated.9,63-66 These integrated chips provide fine control over transport phenomena and the ability to perform high throughput analyses via highly integrated fluid networks. However, the development of microfluidic platforms for in meso protein crystallization required the development of strategies to cope with extremely viscous and non-Newtonian fluids. A theoretical treatment of highly viscous fluids in microfluidic devices is presented in Chapter 3, followed by the application of these strategies for the development of a microfluidic mixer capable of preparing a mesophase sample for in meso crystallization at a scale of less than 20 nL in Chapter 4. This approach was validated with the successful on chip in meso crystallization of the membrane protein bacteriorhodopsin. In summary, this is the first report of a microfluidic platform capable of performing in meso crystallization on-chip, representing a 1000x reduction in the scale at which mesophase trials can be prepared. Once protein crystals have formed, they are typically harvested from the droplet they were grown in and mounted for crystallographic analysis. Despite the high throughput automation present in nearly all other aspects of protein structure determination, the harvesting and mounting of crystals is still largely a manual process. Furthermore, during mounting the fragile protein crystals can potentially be damaged, both from physical and environmental shock. To circumvent these challenges an X-ray transparent microfluidic device architecture was developed to couple the benefits of scale, integration, and precise fluid control with the ability to perform in situ X-ray analysis (Chapter 5). This approach was validated successfully by crystallization and subsequent on-chip analysis of the soluble proteins lysozyme, thaumatin, and ribonuclease A and will be extended to microfluidic platforms for in meso membrane protein crystallization. The ability to perform in situ X-ray analysis was shown to provide extremely high quality diffraction data, in part as a result of not being affected by damage due to physical handling of the crystals. As part of the work described in this thesis, a variety of data collection strategies for in situ data analysis were also tested, including merging of small slices of data from a large number of crystals grown on a single chip, to allow for diffraction analysis at biologically relevant temperatures. While such strategies have been applied previously,57,59,61,67 they are potentially challenging when applied via traditional methods due to the need to grow and then mount a large number of crystals with minimal crystal-to-crystal variability. The integrated nature of microfluidic platforms easily enables the generation of a large number of reproducible crystallization trials. This, coupled with in situ analysis capabilities has the potential of being able to acquire high resolution structural data of proteins at biologically relevant conditions for which only small crystals, or crystals which are adversely affected by standard cryocooling techniques, could be obtained (Chapters 5 and 6). While the main focus of protein crystallography is to obtain three-dimensional protein structures, the results of typical experiments provide only a static picture of the protein. The use of polychromatic or Laue X-ray diffraction methods enables the collection of time resolved structural information. These experiments are very sensitive to crystal quality, however, and often suffer from severe radiation damage due to the intense polychromatic X-ray beams. Here, as before, the ability to perform in situ X-ray analysis on many small protein crystals within a microfluidic crystallization platform has the potential to overcome these challenges. An automated method for collecting a "single-shot" of data from a large number of crystals was developed in collaboration with the BioCARS team at the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory (Chapter 6). The work described in this thesis shows that, even more so than for traditional structure determination efforts, the ability to grow and analyze a large number of high quality crystals is critical to enable time resolved structural studies of novel proteins. In addition to enabling X-ray crystallography experiments, the development of X-ray transparent microfluidic platforms also has tremendous potential to answer other scientific questions, such as unraveling the mechanism of in meso crystallization. For instance, the lipidic mesophases utilized during in meso membrane protein crystallization can be characterized by small angle X-ray diffraction analysis. Coupling in situ analysis with microfluidic platforms capable of preparing these difficult mesophase samples at very small volumes has tremendous potential to enable the high throughput analysis of these systems on a scale that is not reasonably achievable using conventional sample preparation strategies (Chapter 7). In collaboration with the LS-CAT team at the Advanced Photon Source, an experimental station for small angle X-ray analysis coupled with the high quality visualization capabilities needed to target specific microfluidic samples on a highly integrated chip is under development. Characterizing the phase behavior of these mesophase systems and the effects of various additives present in crystallization trials is key for developing an understanding of how in meso crystallization occurs. A long term goal of these studies is to enable the rational design of in meso crystallization experiments so as to avoid or limit the need for high throughput screening efforts. In summary, this thesis describes the development of microfluidic platforms for protein crystallization with in situ analysis capabilities. Coupling the ability to perform in situ analysis with the small scale, fine control, and the high throughput nature of microfluidic platforms has tremendous potential to enable a new generation of crystallographic studies and facilitate the structure determination of important biological targets. The development of platforms for in meso membrane protein crystallization is particularly significant because they enable the preparation of highly viscous mixtures at a previously unachievable scale. Work in these areas is ongoing and has tremendous potential to improve not only current the methods of protein crystallization and crystallography, but also to enhance our knowledge of the structure and function of proteins which could have a significant scientific and medical impact on society as a whole. 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Epigenetic and oncogenic regulation of SLC16A7 (MCT2) results in protein over-expression, impacting on signalling and cellular phenotypes in prostate cancer

Monocarboxylate Transporter 2 (MCT2) is a major pyruvate transporter encoded by the SLC16A7 gene. Recent studies pointed to a consistent overexpression of MCT2 in prostate cancer (PCa) suggesting MCT2 as a putative biomarker and molecular target. Despite the importance of this observation the mechanisms involved in MCT2 regulation are unknown. Through an integrative analysis we have discovered that selective demethylation of an internal SLC16A7/MCT2 promoter is a recurrent event in independent PCa cohorts. This demethylation is associated with expression of isoforms differing only in 5'-UTR translational control motifs, providing one contributing mechanism for MCT2 protein overexpression in PCa. Genes co-expressed with SLC16A7/MCT2 also clustered in oncogenic-related pathways and effectors of these signalling pathways were found to bind at the SLC16A7/MCT2 gene locus. Finally, MCT2 knock-down attenuated the growth of PCa cells. The present study unveils an unexpected epigenetic regulation of SLC16A7/MCT2 isoforms and identifies a link between SLC16A7/MCT2, Androgen Receptor (AR), ETS-related gene (ERG) and other oncogenic pathways in PCa. These results underscore the importance of combining data from epigenetic, transcriptomic and protein level changes to allow more comprehensive insights into the mechanisms underlying protein expression, that in our case provide additional weight to MCT2 as a candidate biomarker and molecular target in PCa.

Le rôle des acides gras oméga-3 sur la balance énergétique, la régulation de l’appétit, l’état émotionnel et l’implication du récepteur GPR120

L’obésité est un facteur de risque lié à des problèmes physiques, émotionnels et comportementaux. Aujourd’hui, l’alimentation est composée d’un régime typiquement occidental «Western diet» qui est riche en acides gras saturés (AGS) et pauvre en acides gras polyinsaturés (AGPI) tel que les oméga-3 (N-3) et occasionnant un déséquilibre du ratio alimentaire N-6/N-3. Ce déséquilibre est une des causes de la prévalence des maladies mentales y compris celles des troubles de l'humeur et de l’anxiété. L’acide docosahexaénoïque (ADH, 22: 6 n-3) est l’acide gras (AG) le plus abondant dans le cerveau et son accumulation est particulièrement élevée pendant la période périnatale. Il joue un rôle important dans le développement neuronal et d'autres fonctions du cerveau tel l'apprentissage et la mémoire. Des perturbations de l’environnement périnatal peuvent influencer à très long terme l’avenir de la descendance en la rendant plus susceptible de développer des problèmes d’obésité dans un contexte nutritionnel riche. On ignore cependant si le déficit alimentaire chez la mère et particulièrement en ADH aura un impact sur la motivation alimentaire de la progéniture. L’objectif principal de cette thèse est d’étudier le rôle potentiel des N-3 sur la balance énergétique, la motivation alimentaire, la dépression et le niveau d’anxiété des descendants de souris mâles adultes assujetties à une alimentation riche en gras. Nos données ont démontré qu‘un régime maternel déficitaire en ADH durant la période périnatale incitait la descendance à fournir plus d’effort afin d’obtenir un aliment palatable. Ceci entraînerait un dérèglement de l’homéostasie énergétique en augmentant le gain de poids et en diminuant l’activité locomotrice tout en exacerbant le comportement de type anxieux dès que les souris sont exposées à un milieu obésogène. Les acides gras libres (AGL) sont des nutriments essentiels fonctionnant comme des molécules de signalisation dans le cerveau en ayant des récepteurs qui jouent un rôle important dans le contrôle du métabolisme énergétique. Parmi eux, on distingue un récepteur couplé à la protéine G (GPCR), le GPR120. Ce récepteur activé par les AGPI ω-3 intervient dans les mécanismes anti-inflammatoires et insulino-résistants via les N-3. Une mutation dans le gène GPR120 occasionnée par une réduction de l’activité de signalisation du gène est liée à l’obésité humaine. L'objectif premier de cette deuxième étude était d’évaluer l'impact de la stimulation pharmacologique de GPR120 dans le système nerveux central (SNC) sur l'alimentation, les dépenses d'énergie, le comportement de type anxieux et la récompense alimentaire. Nos résultats démontrent qu’une injection centrale aiguë d'agoniste GPR120 III réduit la prise alimentaire ad libitum et la motivation alimentaire pour un aliment riche en gras et en sucre; ainsi que les comportements de type anxieux. L’injection centrale chronique (21 jours) de ce même agoniste GPR120 III transmis par une pompe osmotique a démontré que les souris placées sous diète hypercalorique (HFD n’ont présenté aucune modification lors de la prise alimentaire ni de gain de poids mais qu’il y avait comparativement au groupe de véhicule, une réduction du comportement de type anxieux, que ce soit dans le labyrinthe en croix surélevé (LCS) ou dans le test à champ ouvert (OFT). L’ADH est reconnu pour ses propriétés anorexigènes au niveau central. De plus, la stimulation des récepteurs de GPR120 au niveau du cerveau avec un agoniste synthétique peut produire un effet intense intervenir sur le comportement lié à l'alimentation des rongeurs. Trouver une approche visant à contrôler à la fois la neuroinflammation, la récompense alimentaire et les troubles émotionnels aiderait assurément au traitement de l'obésité et du diabète de type 2.