Pitfalls in Protection: How Theory Can Enrich Our Understanding of Regulatory Compliance Problems in Planning Practice

This paper responds to demands for greater academic investigation into environmental protection, specifically the practical and structural problems which underpin regulatory compliance in the planning system. It critiques traditional theories of regulation and answers calls for the development of a thematic lens to facilitate the scrutiny of not only operational practice, but also the broader institutional regime. An empirical investigation builds upon the construct of really responsive regulation to study planning control and it becomes apparent that not only are there significant procedural planning difficulties facing regulatory compliance, but also that a much wider raft of issues must be considered if the complex equation is to be solved. The findings demonstrate how theory can be applied to enrich our rudimentary understanding of deep-seated problems and foster insights into areas of structural importance which are relevant to both planning and the wider regulatory arena.

Stress tolerance and virulence of insect-pathogenic fungi are determined by environmental conditions during conidial formation

<p>The virulence to insects and tolerance to heat and UV-B radiation of conidia of entomopathogenic fungi are greatly influenced by physical, chemical, and nutritional conditions during mycelial growth. This is evidenced, for example, by the stress phenotypes of Metarhizium robertsii produced on various substrates. Conidia from minimal medium (Czapek's medium without sucrose), complex medium, and insect (Lepidoptera and Coleoptera) cadavers had high, moderate, and poor tolerance to UV-B radiation, respectively. Furthermore, conidia from minimal medium germinated faster and had increased heat tolerance and were more virulent to insects than those from complex medium. Low water-activity or alkaline culture conditions also resulted in production of conidia with high tolerance to heat or UV-B radiation. Conidia produced on complex media exhibited lower stress tolerance, whereas those from complex media supplemented with NaCl or KCl (to reduce water activity) were more tolerant to heat and UV-B than those from the unmodified complex medium. Osmotic and nutritive stresses resulted in production of conidia with a robust stress phenotype, but also were associated with low conidial yield. Physical conditions such as growth under illumination, hypoxic conditions, and heat shock before conidial production also induced both higher UV-B and heat tolerance; but conidial production was not decreased. In conclusion, physical and chemical parameters, as well as nutrition source, can induce great variability in conidial tolerance to stress for entomopathogenic fungi. Implications are discussed in relation to the ecology of entomopathogenic fungi in the field, and to their use for biological control. This review will cover recent technologies on improving stress tolerance of entomopathogenic fungi for biological control of insects.</p>

Chaotropicity: a key factor in product tolerance of biofuel-producing microorganisms

<p>Fermentation products can chaotropically disorder macromolecular systems and induce oxidative stress, thus inhibiting biofuel production. Recently, the chaotropic activities of ethanol, butanol and vanillin have been quantified (5.93, 37.4, 174kJkg(-1)m(-1) respectively). Use of low temperatures and/or stabilizing (kosmotropic) substances, and other approaches, can reduce, neutralize or circumvent product-chaotropicity. However, there may be limits to the alcohol concentrations that cells can tolerate; e.g. for ethanol tolerance in the most robust Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains, these are close to both the solubility limit (&lt;25%, w/v ethanol) and the water-activity limit of the most xerotolerant strains (0.880). Nevertheless, knowledge-based strategies to mitigate or neutralize chaotropicity could lead to major improvements in rates of product formation and yields, and also therefore in the economics of biofuel production.</p>

Top incomes under finance-driven capitalism, 1990-2010: power resources and regulatory orders

This article examines the impact of financialisation on the income shares of the top 1% from 1990-2010, through a panel analysis of 14 OECD countries. Drawing together literatures stressing the dependence of income inequality on the structural bargaining power of capital relative to labour, and of the dependence of accumulation on underlying institutionalised modes of state regulation, it shows that financialisation has significantly enhanced top income shares net of underlying controls. Whilst the income shares of the top 1% appear responsive to variables typical of wider studies of personal income inequality, we emphasise distinctive mechanisms of top income growth linked to the rising dominance of financial instruments and actors, facilitated by a historically specific regulatory order. These conditions were key to the emergence of a state of ‘asymmetric bargaining’ which disproportionately enhanced the fortunes of the wealthy. Results thus emphasise the importance of class-biased power resources and underlying regulatory structures, as determinants both of income concentration and of the distribution of economic rewards beyond growth capacity alone.

Biofilm formation by Bacillus subtilis: new insights into regulatory strategies and assembly mechanisms

<p>Biofilm formation is a social behaviour that generates favourable conditions for sustained survival in the natural environment. For the Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis the process involves the differentiation of cell fate within an isogenic population and the production of communal goods that form the biofilm matrix. Here we review recent progress in understanding the regulatory pathways that control biofilm formation and highlight developments in understanding the composition, function and structure of the biofilm matrix.</p>

Natural cutaneous anthrax infection, but not vaccination, induces a CD4⁺ T cell response involving diverse cytokines

Background<p style="padding: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 1em; border: 0px; outline: 0px; font-size: 11px; font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; vertical-align: baseline; overflow: visible; clear: both; line-height: 17.6000003814697px;">Whilst there have been a number of insights into the subsets of CD4<sup style="padding: 0px; margin: 0px;">+</sup> T cells induced by pathogenic<em style="padding: 0px; margin: 0px; border: 0px; outline: 0px; font-weight: inherit; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">Bacillus anthracis</em> infections in animal models, how these findings relate to responses generated in naturally infected and vaccinated humans has yet to be fully established. We describe the cytokine profile produced in response to T cell stimulation with a previously defined immunodominant antigen of anthrax, lethal factor (LF), domain IV, in cohorts of individuals with a history of cutaneous anthrax, compared with vaccinees receiving the U.K. licenced Anthrax Vaccine Precipitated (AVP) vaccine.</p>Findings<p style="padding: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 1em; border: 0px; outline: 0px; font-size: 11px; font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; vertical-align: baseline; overflow: visible; clear: both; line-height: 17.6000003814697px;">We found that immunity following natural cutaneous infection was significantly different from that seen after vaccination. AVP vaccination was found to result in a polarized IFNγ CD4+ T cell response, while the individuals exposed to <em style="padding: 0px; margin: 0px; border: 0px; outline: 0px; font-weight: inherit; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">B. anthracis</em> by natural infection mounted a broader cytokine response encompassing IFNγ, IL-5, −9, −10, −13, −17, and −22.</p>Conclusions<p style="padding: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 1em; border: 0px; outline: 0px; font-size: 11px; font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; vertical-align: baseline; overflow: visible; clear: both; line-height: 17.6000003814697px;">Vaccines seeking to incorporate the robust, long-lasting, CD4 T cell immune responses observed in naturally acquired cutaneous anthrax cases may need to elicit a similarly broad spectrum cellular immune response.</p>

Extraordinary solute-stress tolerance contributes to the environmental tenacity of mycobacteria

Mycobacteria are associated with a number of well-characterized diseases, yet we know little about their stress-biology in natural ecosystems. This study focuses on the isolation and characterization of strains from Yellowstone-(YNP) and Glacier-National-Parks (GNP; USA), the majority of those identified were Mycobacterium parascrofulaceum, Mycobacterium avium (YNP) or Mycobacterium gordonae (GNP). Generally, their temperature windows for growth were &gt;60°C; selected isolates grew at super-saturated concentrations of hydrophobic stressors and at levels of osmotic stress and chaotropic activity (up to 13.4 kJkg-1) similar to, or exceeding, those for the xerophilic fungus Aspergillus wentii and solvent-tolerant bacterium Pseudomonas putida. For example, mycobacteria grew down to 0.800 water-activity indicating that they are, with the sole exception of halophiles, more xerotolerant than other bacteria (or any Archaea). Furthermore, the fatty-acid composition of Mycobacterium cells grown over a range of salt concentrations changed less than that of other bacteria, indicating a high level of resilience, regardless of the stress load. Cells of M. parascrofulaceum, M. smegmatis and M. avium resisted the acute, potentially lethal challenges from extremes of pH (&lt;1; &gt;13), and saturated MgCl2-solutions (5 M; 212 kJ kg-1 chaotropicity). Collectively, these findings challenge the paradigm that bacteria have solute tolerances inferior to those of eukaryotes.

Urothelial cancer gene regulatory networks inferred from large-scale RNAseq, Bead and Oligo gene expression data

<p>BACKGROUND: Urothelial pathogenesis is a complex process driven by an underlying network of interconnected genes. The identification of novel genomic target regions and gene targets that drive urothelial carcinogenesis is crucial in order to improve our current limited understanding of urothelial cancer (UC) on the molecular level. The inference of genome-wide gene regulatory networks (GRN) from large-scale gene expression data provides a promising approach for a detailed investigation of the underlying network structure associated to urothelial carcinogenesis.</p><p>METHODS: In our study we inferred and compared three GRNs by the application of the BC3Net inference algorithm to large-scale transitional cell carcinoma gene expression data sets from Illumina RNAseq (179 samples), Illumina Bead arrays (165 samples) and Affymetrix Oligo microarrays (188 samples). We investigated the structural and functional properties of GRNs for the identification of molecular targets associated to urothelial cancer.</p><p>RESULTS: We found that the urothelial cancer (UC) GRNs show a significant enrichment of subnetworks that are associated with known cancer hallmarks including cell cycle, immune response, signaling, differentiation and translation. Interestingly, the most prominent subnetworks of co-located genes were found on chromosome regions 5q31.3 (RNAseq), 8q24.3 (Oligo) and 1q23.3 (Bead), which all represent known genomic regions frequently deregulated or aberated in urothelial cancer and other cancer types. Furthermore, the identified hub genes of the individual GRNs, e.g., HID1/DMC1 (tumor development), RNF17/TDRD4 (cancer antigen) and CYP4A11 (angiogenesis/ metastasis) are known cancer associated markers. The GRNs were highly dataset specific on the interaction level between individual genes, but showed large similarities on the biological function level represented by subnetworks. Remarkably, the RNAseq UC GRN showed twice the proportion of significant functional subnetworks. Based on our analysis of inferential and experimental networks the Bead UC GRN showed the lowest performance compared to the RNAseq and Oligo UC GRNs.</p><p>CONCLUSION: To our knowledge, this is the first study investigating genome-scale UC GRNs. RNAseq based gene expression data is the data platform of choice for a GRN inference. Our study offers new avenues for the identification of novel putative diagnostic targets for subsequent studies in bladder tumors.</p>

Arsenate, arsenite and dimethyl arsinic acid (DMA) uptake and tolerance in maize (Zea mays L.)

<p>The influx of arsenate, arsenite and dimethyl arsinic acid (DMA) were studied in 7-day-old excised maize roots (Zea mays L.), and then related to arsenate, arsenite and DMA toxicity. Arsenate, arsenite and DMA influx was all found concentration dependent with significant genotypic differences for arsenite and DMA. Arsenate influx in phosphate starved plants best fitted the four-parameter Michaelis-Menten model corresponding to an additive high and low affinity uptake system, while the uptake of phosphate replete plants followed the two parameter model of Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Arsenite influx was well described by the two parameter model of 'Michaelis-Menten' kinetics. DMA influx was comprised of linear phase and a hyperbolic phase. DMA influx was much lower than that for arsenite and arsenate. Arsenate and DMA influx decreased when phosphate was given as a pre-treatment as opposed to phosphate starved plants. The +P treatment tended to decrease influx by 50% for arsenate while this figure was 90% for DMA. Arsenite influx increasing slightly at higher arsenite concentrations in P starved plants but at lower arsenite concentrations, there was little or no difference in arsenite uptake. Low toxicity was found for DMA on maize compared with arsenate and arsenite and the relative toxicity of arsenic species was As(V) &gt; As(III) &gt;&gt; DMA. © 2008 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.</p>

An arsenate tolerance gene on chromosome 6 of rice

<p>The genetics of arsenic tolerance in plants has not been extensively studied and no arsenic tolerance gene has been genetically mapped. Screening 20 diverse genotypes of rice for reduced root growth in 13.3 μM arsenate identified marked differences in tolerance. The most sensitive variety, Dawn, is known to be highly susceptible to straighthead, a condition linked to arsenic contamination of soil. Screening 108 recombinant inbred lines of the Bala x Azucena mapping population revealed the presence of a major gene, AsTol, which mapped between markers RZ516 and RG213 on chromosome 6. This gene is a good target for further characterisation. It should prove valuable for investigations into the physiological and molecular mechanism behind arsenic tolerance in plants and may lead to strategies aimed at breeding for arsenic contaminated regions. © New Phytologist (2004).</p>

Yellow earthworms:Distinctive pigmentation associated with arsenic- and copper-tolerance in Lumbricus rubellus

<p>Lumbricus rubellus Hoffmeister, inhabiting soil at the 19th century Devon Great Consols mine at Tavistock, Devon, UK, show high tolerance to Cu- and As-toxicity and frequently have a striking yellow coloration. Specimens from this site (mature and immature) and from an uncontaminated site on Lancaster University campus (mature) were photographed, and the slide images digitized and analyzed. All L. rubellus showed reddish-purple pigmentation of the body wall that declined in intensity posteriorly. The metal- and metalloid-resistant earthworms, whether mature or immature, showed yellowing in the posterior half of the body. The source of the coloration was intense yellow pigmentation of the chloragogenous tissue surrounding the alimentary canal. The yellow pigmentation is masked by reddish-purple body wall pigmentation anteriorly. Total As concentrations in tissues were determined for the anterior, middle and posterior sections of resistant and non-resistant L. rubellus. Highest concentrations were in the middle sections of the mature and immature resistant L. rubellus (36.17 ± 19.77 and 27.77 ± 9.02 mg As kg^-1, respectively). Resistant immature L. rubellus lost condition over 28 d in soil treated with 750 mg As kg^-1, possibly due to a higher metabolism, whilst there was no loss in condition for resistant mature L. rubellus in the treated soil. As far as the authors are aware, this is the first report of yellow pigmentation of this kind in earthworms. The pigmentation may provide a useful indicator of exposure/resistance to soil contamination. © 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.</p>

Do ectomycorrhizal fungi exhibit adaptive tolerance to potentially toxic metals in the environment?

<p>The effects of potentially toxic metals on ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi and their higher plant hosts are examined in this review. Investigations at a species and community level have revealed wide inter- and intraspecific variation in sensitivity to metals. Adaptive and constitutive mechanisms of ECM tolerance are proposed and discussed in relation to proven tolerance mechanisms in bacteria, yeasts and plants. Problems with methodology and research priorities are highlighted. These include the need for a detailed understanding of the genetic basis of tolerance in the ECM symbiosis, and for studies of ECM community dynamics in polluted sites.</p>

Relationship between plant phosphorus status and the kinetics of arsenate influx in clones of deschampsia cespitosa (L.) beauv. that differ in their tolerance to arsenate

<p>Uptake kinetics of arsenate were determined in arsenate tolerant and non-tolerant clones of the grass Deschampsia cespitosa under differing root phosphorus status to investigate the mechanism controlling the suppression of arsenate influx observed in tolerant clones. Influx was always lower in tolerants compared to non-tolerants. Short term influx of arsenate by the high affinity uptake system in both tolerant clones was relatively insensitive to root phosphorus status. This was in contrast to the literature where the regulation of the phosphate (arsenate) uptake system is normally much more responsive to plant phosphorus status. The low affinity uptake system in both tolerant and non-tolerant clones, unlike the high affinity uptake system, was more closely regulated by root phosphate status and was repressed to a much greater degree under increasing root phosphorus levels than the high affinity system. © 1994 Kluwer Academic Publishers.</p>

Biomass allocation, phosphorus nutrition and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal infection in clones of Yorkshire Fog, Holcus lanatus L. (Poaceae) that differ in their phosphate uptake kinetics and tolerance to arsenate

<p>Biomass and phosphorus allocation were determined in arsenate tolerant and non-tolerant clones of the grass Holcus lanatus L. in both solution culture and in soil. Arsenate is a phosphate analogue and is taken up by the phosphate uptake system. Tolerance to arsenate in this grass is achieved by suppression of arsenate (and phosphate) influx. When clones differing in their arsenate tolerance were grown in solution culture with a range of phosphate levels, a tolerant clone did not fare as well as a non-tolerant at low levels of phosphate nutrition in that it had reduced shoot biomass production, increased biomass allocation to the roots and lower shoot phosphorus concentration. At a higher level of phosphate nutrition there was little or no difference in these parameters, suggesting that differences at lower levels of phosphate nutrition were due solely to differences in the rates of phosphate accumulation. In experiments in sterile soil (potting compost) the situation was more complicated with tolerant plants having lower growth rates but higher phosphorus concentrations. The gene for arsenate tolerance is polymorphic in arsenate uncontaminated populations. When phosphorus concentration of tolerant phenotypes was determined in one such population, again tolerants had a higher phosphorus status than non-tolerants. Tolerants also had higher rates of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) infection. The ecological implications of these results are that it appears that suppression of the high affinity uptake system, is at least in part, compensated by increased mycorrhizal infection. © 1994 Kluwer Academic Publishers.</p>

Polymorphism and physiology of arsenate tolerance in Holcus lanatus L. from an uncontaminated site

<p>The polymorphism of arsenate tolerance in a Holcus lanatus L. population from an uncontaminated soil was investigated and a high percentage of tolerant individuals (65%) was found in the population studied. Influx of arsenate was highly correlated to arsenate tolerance within the population, with the most tolerant individuals having the lowest rates of arsenate influx. Isotherms for the high affinity arsenate uptake systems were determined in six tolerant and six non-tolerant genotypes. Tolerant plants had the lowest rates of arsenate influx. This was achieved by adaptation of the V_max of arsenate influx with the V_max of the high affinity uptake system saturating at lower substrate concentrations in the tolerant plants. The polymorphism is discussed with relation to adaptation to the extreme environments to which the plants are subjected on mine-spoil soils. © 1992 Kluwer Academic Publishers.</p>