Ratkaiseeko raha? : Tulospalkkiojärjestelmään ja työympäristöön liittyvien kokemusten yhteys esimiesten työtyytyväisyyteen ja työmotivaatioon

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between merit pay system and work environment and foremen´s work satisfaction and work motivation. There has been a lot of investigation on rewarding. Less research has been done on previous surveys among the merit pay systems and motivation investigations. According to former surveys, rewarding systems cannot be released from its context. Therefore this survey expanded to deal with work environment. It was also essential to investigate different dimensions of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and equity of rewarding. Investigation or work motivation and work satisfaction was challenging because both of these concepts have been investigated under quite traditional frame of reference of work motivation theories. In some surveys, the concepts have not been even separated or they have been used even as synonyms. The data were collected with the 193 foremen working in the profit centers of the different chains of the company in the field of retail trade. The questions were: Are the experiences of merit pay system and work environment related to foremen´s work satisfaction and work motivation? Are the backround variables related to foremen´s work satisfaction and work motivation? The data collection was carried out by an electronic inquiry during May 2010. 137 replied from foremen working under merit pay system. The research material was analyzed with PASW-software. Various analyzing methods were used: factor analyses, regression analyses and group of different parametric and non-parametric analyses. In contrast to theoretical framework in the factor analyses work satisfaction and work motivation clustered into the same dimension. As a main result the atmosphere, possibilities to influence and the atmosphere of leading were strongly positively related to foremen´s work satisfaction and work motivation. According to regression analyses these factors were able to explain 55 % of the foremen´s work satisfaction and work motivation. The best explanatory variable was atmosphere. Instead, the backround variables (age, sex, working years, group of profession, education) were not associated with work satisfaction and work motivation.

Design of Constant Accuracy Linear Proportional Weir

Five different shaped weirs were designed and pertinent data for their use are given. One of these weir shapes had the least “sharp edge” at the junction of the base weir and “complementary weir.” Two other types of weirs had equal slopes at the junction of the base weir and complementary weir. Another shape, for which neither the indication accuracy was constant nor the slope was equal at the junction of the base weir and complementary weir, was also tested. The results of the four weir shapes hydraulically tested give consistent values for the coefficient of discharge varying between 0.625 to 0.631. The indication accuracies of all the previously designed linear proportional weirs (includig Sutro weir) are neither constant nor unity, as is believed.

Tsoi Yuen Resistance and Post-80s Generation: A new wave of domestic social movement

Hong Kong was once a British colony and has been under the sovereignty of People’s Republic of China (PRC) since 1997. However, some of the unjust practices and colonial legacies are infiltrated into the development ideology as well as the social structures. The construction of intercity express railway project announced in 2008 causing the demolishment of Tsoi Yuen Tsuen, a “non-indigenous” agricultural village in Hong Kong, was one of the current examples. Tsoi Yuen village was established under the former colonial sovereignty sixty years ago. Approximately 450 populations were affected that they had to relocate their homeland involuntarily. However, these villagers were very attached to their homelands and were unwilling to move, and meanwhile they found that they were absent in the government’s consultation and decision-making process. Soon they began their resistance and demanded for “No Move! No Demolish!”. Their movement was strongly supported by a group of “Post-80s generation” and turned into the most important social movement of the city in recent years. In fact, demolition of Tsoi Yuen Village for city development is not an isolated case in the city. Meanwhile the situation is getting worse in Mainland China. I chose the case study of Tsoi Yuen Resistance from 2008 to 2011 for revelation of the complicated colonial history and postcolonial era of Hong Kong. I focused on discussing the Tsoi Yuen Resistance and the Post-80s movement, and how they have exposed the tension between top-down urban planning and development and public movements fighting for a more democratic process in choosing their way of living. Through the study of a village movement which as well as the rationale behind the Post-80s’ support, I hoped to illustrate how this movement has awaken a different sense of living for the new generations in the midst of the high-sounding urban development. It is an opportunity to examine Hong Kong’s colonial epoch in a different perspective: through studying the Tsoi Yuen Village, let them (subalterns) speak for themselves. Furthermore, the significance of this resistance, taking place eleven years after the handover to the PRC, is an important fact that I shall not miss in later discussion. Last but not least, during the resistance, advanced technology and social networks such as Facebook, Twitter, iPhone were used by Post 80s generation to spread the latest information in order to attract public’s concern and participation. Therefore, apart from studying Tsoi Yuen Resistance as a local social movement, I also regard it as a part of the global movement in perusing ecological lifestyle and civil society. How Post 80s’ generation manipulates the global idea in a local context will also be examined.

Thermodynamic partial properties of Na2O in Nasicon solid solution, Na1+xZr2SixP3-xO12

The thermodynamic activity of sodium oxide (Na2O) in the Nasicon solid solution series, Na1+xZr2SixO12, has been measured in the temperature range 700�1100 K using solid state galvanic cells: Pt|CO2 + O2|Na2CO3?Na1+xZr2SixP3-xO12?(Y2O3)ZrO2?In + In2O3|Ta, Pt for 1 = ? = 2.5, and Pt?CO2 + O2?Na2CO3?ß-alumina?Na1+xZr2SixP3-xO12?Ar + O2?Pt for x = 0, 0.5, 2.5, and 3. The former cell, where the Nasicon solid solution is used as an electrolyte along with yttria-stabilized zirconia, is well suited for Nasicon compositions with high ionic conductivity. In the latter cell, ß-alumina is used as an electrolyte and the Nasicon solid solution forms an electrode. The chemical potential of Na2O is found to increase monotonically with x at constant temperature. The partial entropy of Na2O decreases continuously with x. However, the partial enthalpy exhibits a maximum at x = 2. This suggests that the binding energy is minimum at the composition where ionic conductivity and cell volume have maximum values.

The EU and Institutional Twinning in Morocco - An inquiry into the motives of cooperation through discourse ethics

This study examines Institutional Twinning in Morocco as a case of EU cooperation through the pragmatic, ethical and moral logics of reason in Jürgen Habermas’s discourse ethics. As a former accession tool, Twinning was introduced in 2004 for legal approximation in the context of the European Neighborhood Policy. Twinning is a unique instrument in development cooperation from a legal perspective. With its long historical and cultural ties to Europe, Morocco presents an interesting case study of this new form of cooperation. We will analyse motives behind the Twinning projects on illegal immigration, environment legislation and customs reform. As Twinning is a new policy instrument within the ENP context, there is relatively little preceding research, which, in itself, constitutes a reason to inquire into the subject. While introducing useful categories, the approaches discussing “normative power Europe” do not offer methodological tools precise enough to analyse the motives of the Twinning cooperation from a broad ethical standpoint. Helene Sjursen as well as Esther Barbé and Elisabeth Johansson-Nogués have elaborated on Jürgen Habermas’ discourse ethics in determining the extent of altruism in the ENP in general. Situating the analysis in the process-oriented framework of Critical Theory, discourse ethics provides the methodological framework for our research. The case studies reveal that the context in which they operate affects the pragmatic, ethical and moral aspirations of the actors. The utilitarian notion of profit maximization is quite pronounced both in terms of the number of Twinning projects in the economic sphere and the pragmatic logics of reason instrumental to security and trade-related issues. The historical background as well internal processes, however, contribute to defining areas of mutual interest to the actors as well as the motives Morocco and the EU sometimes described as the external projection of internal values. Through its different aspects, Twinning cooperation portrays the functioning of the pragmatic, ethical and moral logics of reason in international relations.

"Musiikki merkitsee minulle paljon" : Asennetutkimus musiikin opiskelun merkityksellisyydestä peruskoulun 9. luokkalaisille

The main purpose of the Master Thesis was to find out what kind of attitudes the pupils in the 9th grade of Finnish comprehensive school have towards music as a school subject and compare it to the attitudes of the principals at a school level. The theoretical context of the research is based on the former studies of the significance of music education in the comprehensive school, the connection between learning and attitudes and the motivational factors towards the study motivation of music. In addition to this, I have analysed the role of the evaluation and the assessment from the point of view of developing the educational system and what is the role of management and leadership in relation to the pupils` behaviour and attitudes. The data of the research is the Finnish National Board of Education`s collected data of the assessment of the learning outcomes of arts education and it is nationally representative (N=5056 I phase and n=1570 II phase), both the Finnish-language and the Swedish-language pupil data. I have especially concentrated on the items of measuring the attitudes, the certain background variables and the questionnaire of the principals. The numerical data was analyzed using the multivariate statistical methods. The results of the research prove that in general the pupils and the principals think that music is quite significant as a school subject. The girls valued music on average more than the boys when comparing all the dimensions. The differences were systematic but the effect sizes were under 10 %. There were not statistically significant differences between the Finnish-language and the Swedish-language pupils. Comparing the grades of music in the 7th grade, the differences were growing linearly and the effect size was 15.7 %. There was a positive statistically significant correlation between the Significance of music and music as a hobby (Active interest in music, Informal interest in music, Taking part of music activities in the school) during free time. The strongest correlation were with the Active interest in music variable (r= 0.53, p= .000). Also the principals thought that music is important as a school subject considering the development of the pupil and the function of the school. The answers of the pupils were not clustering at a school level and there were no strong correlations between the attitudes of the pupils and the principals. A statistically nearly significant and a slight correlation (r= 0.21, p= .011) was found between the principals valuing the Significance of the music for school function and the pupils valuing the Benefits and hobbyism. The role of a well-motivated and active music teacher can be important from this point of view. The most important conclusion of the research was that the significance of music is a very personal individual level phenomenon. The results highlight also that in the pupils` opinion the most important thing about music lessons is to musical activity and learning as an experience.

Global Processes, Local Strategies : migration of educated Dominicans.

The aim of this thesis is to examine migration of educated Dominicans in light of global processes. Current global developments have resulted in increasingly global movements of people, yet people tend to come from certain places in large numbers rather than others. At the same time, international migration is increasingly selective, which shows in the disproportional number of educated migrants. This study discovers individual and societal motivations that explain why young educated Dominicans decide to migrate and return. The theoretical framework of this thesis underlines that migration is a dynamic process rooted in other global developments. Migratory movements should be seen as a result of interacting macro- and microstructures, which are linked by a number of intermediate mechanisms, meso-structures. The way individuals perceive opportunity structures concretises the way global developments mediate to the micro-level. The case of the Dominican Republic shows that there is a diversity of local responses to the world system, as Dominicans have produced their own unique historical responses to global changes. The thesis explains that Dominican migration is importantly conditioned by socioeconomic and educational background. Migration is more accessible for the educated middle class, because of the availability of better resources. Educated migrants also seem less likely to rely on networks to organize their migrations. The role of networks in migration differs by socioeconomic background on the one hand, and by the specific connections each individual has to current and previous migrants on the other hand. The personal and cultural values of the migrant are also pivotal. The central argument of this thesis is that a veritable culture of migration has evolved in the Dominican Republic. The actual economic, political and social circumstances have led many Dominicans to believe that there are better opportunities elsewhere. The globalisation of certain expectations on the one hand, and the development of the specifically Dominican feeling of ‘externalism’ on the other, have for their part given rise to the Dominican culture of migration. The study also suggests that the current Dominican development model encourages migration. Besides global structures, local structures are found to ve pivotal in determining how global processes are materialised in a specific place. The research for this thesis was conducted by using qualitative methodology. The focus of this thesis was on thematic interviews that reveal the subject’s point of view and give a fuller understanding of migration and mobility of the educated. The data was mainly collected during a field research phase in Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic in December 2009 and January 2010. The principal material consists of ten thematic interviews held with educated Dominican current or former migrants. Four expert interviews, relevant empirical data, theoretical literature and newspaper articles were also comprehensively used.

Detection, epidemiology and host spectrum of cowpox and Borna disease virus infections

Several orthopoxviruses (OPV) and Borna disease virus (BDV) are enveloped, zoonotic viruses with a wide geographical distribution. OPV antibodies cross-react, and former smallpox vaccination has therefore protected human populations from another OPV infection, rodent-borne cowpox virus (CPXV). Cowpox in humans and cats usually manifests as a mild, self-limiting dermatitis and constitutional symptoms, but it can be severe and even life-threatening in the immunocompromised. Classical Borna disease is a progressive meningoencephalomyelitis in horses and sheep known in central Europe for centuries. Nowadays the virus or its close relative infects humans and also several other species in central Europe and elsewhere, but the existence of human Borna disease with its suspected neuropsychiatric symptoms is controversial. The epidemiology of BDV is largely unknown, and the present situation is even more intriguing following the recent detection of several-million-year-old, endogenized BDV genes in primate and various other vertebrate genomes. The aims of this study were to elucidate the importance of CPXV and BDV in Finland and in possible host species, and particularly to 1) establish relevant methods for the detection of CPXV and other OPVs as well as BDV in Finland, 2) determine whether CPXV and BDV exist in Finland, 3) discover how common OPV immunity is in different age groups in Finland, 4) characterize possible disease cases and clarify their epidemiological context, 5) establish the hosts and possible reservoir species of these viruses and their geographical distribution in wild rodents, and 6) elucidate the infection kinetics of BDV in the bank vole. An indirect immunofluorescence assay and avidity measurement were established for the detection, timing and verification of OPV or BDV antibodies in thousands of blood samples from humans, horses, ruminants, lynxes, gallinaceous birds, dogs, cats and rodents. The mostly vaccine-derived OPV seroprevalence was found to decrease gradually according to the year of birth of the sampled human subjects from 100% to 10% in those born after 1977. On the other hand, OPV antibodies indicating natural contact with CPXV or other OPVs were commonly found in domestic and wild animals: the horse, cow, lynx, dog, cat and, with a prevalence occasionally even as high as 92%, in wild rodents, including some previously undetected species and new regions. Antibodies to BDV were detected in humans, horses, a dog, cats, and for the first time in wild rodents, such as bank voles (Myodes glareolus). Because of the controversy within the human Borna disease field, extra verification methods were established for BDV antibody findings: recombinant nucleocapsid and phosphoproteins were produced in Escherichia coli and in a baculovirus system, and peptide arrays were additionally applied. With these verification assays, Finnish human, equine, feline and rodent BDV infections were confirmed. Taken together, wide host spectra were evident for both OPV and BDV infections based on the antibody findings, and OPV infections were found to be geographically broadly distributed. PCR amplification methods were utilised for hundreds of blood and tissue samples. The methods included conventional, nested and real-time PCRs with or without the reverse transcription step and detecting four or two genes of OPVs and BDV, respectively. OPV DNA could be amplified from two human patients and three bank voles, whereas no BDV RNA was detected in naturally infected individuals. Based on the phylogenetic analyses, the Finnish OPV sequences were closely related although not identical to a Russian CPXV isolate, and clearly different from other CPXV strains. Moreover, the Finnish sequences only equalled each other, but the short amplicons obtained from German rodents were identical to monkeypox virus, in addition to German CPXV variants. This reflects the close relationship of all OPVs. In summary, RNA of the Finnish BDV variant could not be detected with the available PCR methods, but OPV DNA infrequently could. The OPV species infecting the patients of this study was proven to be CPXV, which is most probably also responsible for the rodent infections. Multiple cell lines and some newborn rodents were utilised in the isolation of CPXV and BDV from patient and wildlife samples. CPXV could be isolated from a child with severe, generalised cowpox. BDV isolation attempts from rodents were unsuccessful in this study. However, in parallel studies, a transient BDV infection of cells inoculated with equine brain material was detected, and BDV antigens discovered in archival animal brains using established immunohistology. Thus, based on several independent methods, both CPXV and BDV (or a closely related agent) were shown to be present in Finland. Bank voles could be productively infected with BDV. This experimental infection did not result in notable pathological findings or symptoms, despite the intense spread of the virus in the central and peripheral nervous system. Infected voles commonly excreted the virus in urine and faeces, which emphasises their possible role as a BDV reservoir. Moreover, BDV RNA was regularly reverse transcribed into DNA in bank voles, which was detected by amplifying DNA by PCR without reverse transcription, and verified with nuclease treatments. This finding indicates that BDV genes could be endogenized during an acute infection. Although further transmission studies are needed, this experimental infection demonstrated that the bank vole can function as a potential BDV reservoir. In summary, multiple methods were established and applied in large panels to detect two zoonoses novel to Finland: cowpox virus and Borna disease virus. Moreover, new information was obtained on their geographical distribution, host spectrum, epidemiology and infection kinetics.

Prison Experiences and Socialist Sculptures

I will discuss five sites of Soviet period dark heritage: three occupation museums in the capital cities of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, a Soviet sculpture park in Lithuanian countryside and a cultural park in a former prison in Tallinn, Estonia. All but the last one have an important role in the local tourist scene. My purpose is to find out how the traumatic Soviet past is presented at the sites and what kind of different modes of display are used. I will also discuss the ways the sites have been interpreted by the visitors.

Relative Contribution of Cell Proliferation and Microvascularity to Metastasis in Malignant Uveal Melanoma

Uveal melanoma (UM) is the second most common primary intraocular cancer worldwide. It is a relatively rare cancer, but still the second most common type of primary malignant melanoma in humans. UM is a slowly growing tumor, and gives rise to distant metastasis mainly to the liver via the bloodstream. About 40% of patients with UM die of metastatic disease within 10 years of diagnosis, irrespective of the type of treatment. During the last decade, two main lines of research have aimed to achieve enhanced understanding of the metastasis process and accurate prognosis of patients with UM. One emphasizes the characteristics of tumor cells, particularly their nucleoli, and markers of proliferation, and the other the characteristics of tumor blood vessels. Of several morphometric measurements, the mean diameter of the ten largest nucleoli (MLN) has become the most widely applied. A large MLN has consistently been associated with high likelihood of dying from UM. Blood vessels are of paramount importance in metastasis of UM. Different extravascular matrix patterns can be seen in UM, like loops and networks. This presence is associated with death from metastatic melanoma. However, the density of microvessels is also of prognostic importance. This study was undertaken to help understanding some histopathological factors which might contribute to developing metastasis in UM patients. Factors which could be related to tumor progression to metastasis disease, namely nucleolar size, MLN, microvascular density (MVD), cell proliferation, and The Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 Receptor(IGF-1R), were investigated. The primary aim of this thesis was to study the relationship between prognostic factors such as tumor cell nucleolar size, proliferation, extravascular matrix patterns, and dissemination of UM, and to assess to what extent there is a relationship to metastasis. The secondary goal was to develop a multivariate model which includes MLN and cell proliferation in addition to MVD, and which would fit better with population-based, melanoma-related survival data than previous models. I studied 167 patients with UM, who developed metastasis even after a very long time following removal of the eye, metastatic disease was the main cause of death, as documented in the Finnish Cancer Registry and on death certificates. Using an independent population-based data set, it was confirmed that MLN and extravascular matrix loops and networks were unrelated, independent predictors of survival in UM. Also, it has been found that multivariate models including MVD in addition to MLN fitted significantly better with survival data than models which excluded MVD. This supports the idea that both the characteristics of the blood vessels and the cells are important, and the future direction would be to look for the gene expression profile, whether it is associated more with MVD or MLN. The former relates to the host response to the tumor and may not be as tightly associated with the gene expression profile, yet most likely involved in the process of hematogenous metastasis. Because fresh tumor material is needed for reliable genetic analysis, such analysis could not be performed Although noninvasive detection of certain extravascular matrix patterns is now technically possible,in managing patients with UM, this study and tumor genetics suggest that such noninvasive methods will not fully capture the process of clinical metastasis. Progress in resection and biopsy techniques is likely in the near future to result in fresh material for the ophthalmic pathologist to correlate angiographic data, histopathological characteristics such as MLN, and genetic data. This study supported the theory that tumors containing epithelioid cells grow faster and have poorer prognosis when studied by cell proliferation in UM based on Ki-67 immunoreactivity. Cell proliferation index fitted best with the survival data when combined with MVD, MLN, and presence of epithelioid cells. Analogous with the finding that high MVD in primary UM is associated with shorter time to metastasis than low MVD, high MVD in hepatic metastasis tends to be associated with shorter survival after diagnosis of metastasis. Because the liver is the main organ for metastasis from UM, growth factors largely produced in the liver hepatocyte growth factor, epidermal growth factor and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) together with their receptors may have a role in the homing and survival of metastatic cells. Therefore the association between immunoreactivity for IGF-1R in primary UM and metastatic death was studied. It was found that immunoreactivity for IGF-IR did not independently predict metastasis from primary UM in my series.

Opportunity Exploration and Exploitation in International New Ventures: A Study of Relationships’ Involvement in Early Entrepreneurial and Internationalisation Events

International new ventures (INVs) are firms that engage very early after their foundation, if not immediately, in inter-national activities. INVs are a relatively recent phenomenon that deviates from earlier theories on international business. In order to develop our understanding of the emergence and early internationalisation of INVs three different research areas are built upon in the dissertation: International Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurship and Networks. Net-works have been identified as important for INVs. However, there is a lack of more profound studies regarding the way different types of relationships influence INVs. Few studies are concerned with exploration and exploitation of opportunities and research on the benefits and drawbacks of entrepreneurs’ relationships for the international opportunity recognition process has been called for. By taking a network approach to opportunity exploration and exploitation, the dissertation develops our under-standing of how entrepreneurs’ relationships are involved in exploring and exploiting opportunities during an INV’s early and critical entrepreneurial and internationalisation events. The critical events are studied during three phases: pre-founding, start-up and early internationalisation. Since internationalisation is present from the very beginning, the early internationalisation phase may be parallel to both the pre-founding and the start-up phase. The dissertation contributes to international entrepreneur-ship research in mainly two ways. First, by offering a deep insight into which opportunity exploration and exploitation activities entrepreneurs’ relationships are involved. Second, by adding to our understanding of what the relationships contribute to these activities, mainly in the sense of benefits gained through the relationships. Studying micro firms in real time in their early development towards INVs is considered a unique contribution of the study as it offers valuable insights into pre-founding, start-up, pre-internationalisation as well as early internationalisation. The study shows that in order to understand the development of INVs, it is beneficial to go back to times when there was no thought of starting the INV. By focusing on the entrepreneurs’ background and relationships a more complete picture of the INV is gained. Relationships created at former workplaces or during school time might be the ones that develop business opportunities and set off internationalisation. By focusing on the pre-founding phase, the study also contributes to entrepreneurship literature as this stage has often been neglected or assumed obvious in earlier research. This dissertation shows that an important and mostly lengthy pre-founding phase precedes the decision to start a f rm. In addition, the integration of entrepreneurs’ real experiences with existing theory to develop a continuum for the strength of relationships allows for contributions to network theory.

Investigations of Noise-Related Tinnitus

Tinnitus is a frequent consequence of noise trauma. Usually, however, the main focus regarding the consequences of noise trauma is placed on hearing loss, instead of tinnitus. The objectives of the present study were to assess various aspects of noise-related tinnitus in Finland, such as to determine the main causes of conscript acute acoustic traumas (AAT) in the military, assess tinnitus prevalence after noise trauma, characterize long-term AAT-related tinnitus prevalence and characteristics, assess occupational tinnitus, and evaluate the efficacy of hearing protection regulations in preventing hearing loss and tinnitus. The study comprised several independent noise-exposed groups: conscripts performing their military duty, former conscripts who suffered an AAT over a decade earlier, bomb explosion victims, and retired army personnel. Tinnitus questionnaires were used to assess tinnitus prevalence and characteristics. For occupational tinnitus, occupational noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) reports to the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health were reviewed. Tinnitus is a common result of AAT, blast exposure and long-term noise exposure. Despite hearing protection regulations, up to hundreds of AATs occur annually among conscripts in the Finnish Defence Forces (FDF). The most common cause is an accidental shot, accounting for approximately half of the cases. Conscript AATs are mainly due to accidental shots, while the ear is unprotected. Only seldom is an AAT due to negligence. The most common causative weapon of conscript AATs is the assault rifle, accounting for 81% of conscript AATs. After AAT, the majority of tinnitus cases resolve during military service and become asymptomatic. However, in one-fifth of the cases, tinnitus persists, causing problems such as sleeping and concentration difficulties in many. In Finland, occupational tinnitus often remains unreported in conjunction with NIHL reports. In a survey of occupational NIHL cases, tinnitus was mentioned in only four per cent. However, a subsequent inquiry revealed that almost 90% in fact had tinnitus, indicating that most cases remained undetected and unreported. The best way to prevent noise-related tinnitus is prevention of noise trauma. In the military, hearing protection guidelines have been revised several times over the years. These regulations have been effective in reducing hearing loss of professional soldiers. There has also been a reduction in cases with tinnitus, but the decrease was not significant. However, with improved hearing protection regulations, a significant reduction in the risk of more serious, disturbing tinnitus was observed.

Gadamers hermeneutik och naturvetenskaplig experimentering

I detta arbete undersöks naturvetenskaplig kunskap ur ett filosofiskt perspektiv. Arbetets centrala ämne är det naturvetenskapliga experimenterandets praktiska aspekter och deras anknytningar till den teoretiska naturvetenskapliga kunskapen. Ämnet behandlas med hjälp av Hans-Georg Gadamers hermeneutiska filosofi i boken Wahrheit und Methode. Gadamers utgångspunkt i denna bok är att hermeneutiken beskriver vad som händer i texttolkning då en tolkare förstår en skriven text, men han antyder också att hermeneutiken har vidare tillämpningsområden, till och med att den universalt beskriver alla former av mänsklig förståelse. Syftet med detta arbete är att undersöka hur Gadamers hermeneutik kan tillämpas på naturvetenskaplig förståelse och vilka ändringar man då måste införliva i hermeneutiken samt att skissa grunddragen för en hermeneutisk modell av naturvetenskaplig kunskap. I arbetet presenteras först de centrala elementen i Gadamers hermeneutiska filosofi, speciellt föromdömens positiva inverkan på tolkandet och den verkningshistoriska effekten bakom varje tolkning. Sedan diskuteras bristerna i Gadamers argument för hermeneutikens universalitet, speciellt hans starka betoning av språket som grunden för all förståelse. Om Gadamers hermeneutik skall kunna tillämpas på naturvetenskapens område måste även observationer kunna vara föremål för tolkning. De dominanta trenderna i vetenskapsfilosofin då Gadamer skrev Wahrheit und Methode är en förklaring till att Gadamer starkt förbinder sig till textförståelsen och oftast diskuterar den naturvetenskapliga kunskapen endast som en negativ motpol till den humanvetenskapliga. Vetenskapsfilosofins utveckling efter Wahrheit und Methode, speciellt det faktum att fullständig objektivitet inte mera anses vara ett realistiskt ideal, höjer förväntningarna på hermeneutikens värde för naturvetenskapernas filosofi. Till följande diskuteras tre bidrag till naturvetenskapernas filosofi som är speciellt värdefulla för en hermeneutiken. Den första av dessa är Sylvain Brombergers analys av ovisshet i vetenskapliga undersökningar. Bromberger hävdar att vetenskaplig forskning riktas mot frågor vars svar forskaren inte kan föreställa sig på förhand. Brombergers analys tyder på att det finns en hermeneutisk dialektik av frågor och svar i naturvetenskapliga experiment där forskaren strävar till att göra observationer för att besvara sina frågor. Det andra bidraget är Michael Polanyis studie av den praktiska och personliga kunskapens betydelse för all vetenskaplig forskning. Här är speciellt det vetenskapliga språkets utveckling i samband med experimentering av intresse. Det tredje bidraget är Robert Creases studie av experimentella observationer som visar att observationstolkning innefattar många element som kan förknippas med hermeneutiken. Analysen av de tre ovannämnda studierna leder till följande slutsatser. Den naturvetenskapliga forskningens hermeneutiska element förväntas vara starkt framför allt i experimentell forskning där forskaren utreder nya frågor i en kontinuerlig dialog av tekniskt prövande, praktisk identifiering och språklig beskrivning av nya fenomen. Speciellt beaktansvärd är skillnaden mellan verifierande och upptäckande naturvetenskapliga undersökningar. Tidigare resultat kan verifieras med hjälp av mätningar som specificeras på förhand, men ingen kan på förhand specificera de tekniska och språkliga steg som krävs för ett framgångsrikt upptäckande experiment. Experimentella upptäckter kräver därför en praktisk kunskap som inte kan reduceras till ren teori eller metodologi. Denna praktiska kunskap kan beskrivas med hjälp av Gadamers hermeneutik. Till sist diskuteras vissa grundläggande drag som kan sägas vara karakteristiska för en hermeneutisk modell av naturvetenskaplig kunskap. Speciellt den naturvetenskapliga kunskapens historiska natur, fördomarnas betydelse i naturvetenskaplig forskning samt vikten av forskarens personliga perspektiv i den naturvetenskapliga observationen är viktiga stöttestenar som gör att den hermeneutiska naturvetenskapsmodellen skiljer sig betydligt från modeller som betonar naturvetenskapernas objektivitet. Men det hermeneutiska perspektivet utesluter inte nödvändigtvis andra perspektiv. Dess huvudsakliga nytta är att den tillåter oss att undersöka sidor av naturvetenskaplig kunskap som objektivitetsbetonande modeller lämnar alltför mycket i skymundan. Till dessa hör speciellt det praktiska arbetet i naturvetenskaplig experimentering.

Diproline Templates as Folding Nuclei in Designed Peptides. Conformational Analysis of Synthetic Peptide Helices Containing Amino Terminal Pro-Pro Segments

The effect of N-terminal diproline segments in nucleating helical folding in designed peptides has been studied in two model sequences Piv-Pro-Pro-Aib-Leu-Aib-Phe-OMe (1) and Boc-Aib-Pro-Pro-Aib-Val-Ala-Phe-OMe (2). The structure of 1 in crystals, determined by X-ray diffraction, reveals a helical (RR) conformation for the segment residues 2 to 5, stabilized by one 4 -> 1 hydrogen bond and two 5 -> 1 interactions. The N-terminus residue, Pro(1) adopts a polyproline II (P-II) conformation. NMR studies in three different solvent systems support a conformation similar to that observed in crystals. In the apolar solvent CDCl3, NOE data favor the population of both completely helical and partially unfolded structures. In the former, the Pro-Pro segment adopts an alpha(R)-alpha(R) conformation, whereas in the latter, a P-II-alpha(R) structure is established. The conformational equilibrium shifts in favor of the P-II-alpha(R) structure in solvents like methanol and DMSO. A significant population of the Pro(1)- Pro(2) cis conformer is also observed. The NMR results are consistent with the population of at least three conformational states about Pro- Pro segment: trans alpha(R)-alpha(R), trans P-II-alpha(R) and cis P-II-alpha(R). Of these, the two trans conformers are in rapid dynamic exchange on the NMR time scale, whereas the interconversion between cis and trans form is slow. Similar results are obtained with peptide 2. Analysis of 462 diproline segments in protein crystal structures reveals 25 examples of the alpha(R)-alpha(R) conformation followed by a helix. Modeling and energy minimization studies suggest that both P-II-alpha(R) and alpha(R)-alpha(R) conformations have very similar energies in the model hexapeptide 1

Roofed polyquinanes: synthesis and electronic structure

Starting from readily available norbornenobenzoquinone 7 and employing a photothermal metathesis reaction as the main strategy, novel "roofed" polyquinane bisenones 3 and 13 have been synthesized. Among these, the former is potentially serviceable for further elaboration to dodecahedrane 1. Catalytic hydrogenation of 3 provided the dione 12, which fully inscribes the circumference of dodecahedrane sphere. The "roofed" C-16-bisenone 3 has been successfully annulated to C19-bisenone 24 and C19-trisenone 26 by employing the Greene methodology and Pauson-Khand reaction, respectively. The molecular structures of 3 and 13 were computed using molecular mechanics and semiempirical MO methods. The nonbonded distances between the double bonds vary strongly with the method employed. The interactions between the pi-MO's were, therefore, probed by means of photoelectron (PE) spectroscopy. Comparison with the PE spectra of a series of model systems with increasing complexity enabled an unambiguous assignment of the observed peaks. The symmetric and antisymmetric combinations of the pi-MO's of the enone moieties of 3 and 13 show large splittings, characteristic of propano-bridged systems in which through-space and through-bond effects act in concert.