Clopidogrel, independent of the vascular P2Y(12) receptor, improves arterial function in small mesenteric arteries from Angll-hypertensive rats

The P2Y(12) receptor antagonist clopidogrel blocks platelet aggregation, improves systemic endothelial nitric oxide bioavailability and has anti-inflammatory effects. Since P2Y(12) receptors have been identified in the vasculature, we hypothesized that clopidogrel ameliorates Angll (angiotensin II)-induced vascular functional changes by blockade of P2Y(12) receptors in the vasculature. Male Sprague Dawley rats were infused with Angll (60 ng/min) or vehicle for 14 days. The animals were treated with clopidogrel (10 mg . kg(-1) of body weight . day(-1)) or vehicle. Vascular reactivity was evaluated in second-order mesenteric arteries. Clopidogrel treatment did not change systolic blood pressure [(mmHg) control-vehicle, 117 +/- 7.1 versus control-clopidogrel, 125 +/- 4.2; Angll vehicle, 197 +/- 10.7 versus Angll clopidogrel, 198 +/- 5.2], but it normalized increased phenylephrine-induced vascular contractions [(%KCI) vehicle-treated, 182.2 +/- 18% versus clopidogrel, 133 +/- 14%), as well as impaired vasodilation to acetylcholine [(%) vehicle-treated, 71.7 +/- 2.2 versus clopidogrel, 85.3 +/- 2.8) in Angll-treated animals. Vascular expression of P2Y(12) receptor was determined by Western blot. Pharmacological characterization of vascular P2Y(12) was performed with the P2Y(12) agonist 2-MeS-ADP [2-(methylthio) adenosine 5`-trihydrogen diphosphate trisodium]. Although 2-MeS-ADP induced endothelium-dependent relaxation [(Emax %) = 71 +/- 12%) as well as contractile vascular responses (Emax % = 83 +/- 12%), these actions are not mediated by P2Y(12) receptor activation. 2-MeS-ADP produced similar vascular responses in control and Angll rats. These results indicate potential effects of clopidogrel, such as improvement of hypertension-related vascular functional changes that are not associated with direct actions of clopidogrel in the vasculature, supporting the concept that activated platelets contribute to endothelial dysfunction, possibly via impaired nitric oxide bioavailability.

Connective tissue mast cells are the target of formaldehyde to induce tracheal hyperresponsiveness in rats: Putative role of leukotriene B(4) and nitric oxide

Formaldehyde (FA) exposure induces upper airways irritation and respiratory abnormalities, but its mechanisms are not understood. Since mast cells are widely distributed in the airways, we hypothesized that FA might modify the airways reactivity by mechanism involving their activation. Tracheal rings of rats were incubated with Dulbecco`s modified medium culture containing FA (0.1 ppm) in 96-well plastic microplates in a humid atmosphere. After 30 min, 6 h, and 24-72 h, the rings were suspended in an organ bath and dose-response curve to methacholine (MCh) were determined. incubation with FA caused a transient tracheal hyperresponsiveness to MCh that was independent from tracheal epithelium integrity. Connective tissue mast cell depletion caused by compound 48/80 or mast cell activation by the allergic reaction, before exposure of tracheal rings to FA prevented the increased responsiveness to MCh. LTB(4) concentrations were increased in the culture medium of tracheas incubated with FA for 48 h, whereas the LTB(4)-receptor antagonist MK886 (1 mu M) added before FA exposure rendered the tracheal rings normoreactive to MCh. In addition, FA exposure did not cause hyperresponsiveness in tracheal segments incubated with L-arginine (1 mu M). We suggest that airway connective tissue mast cells constitute the target and may provide the increased LTB(4) generation as well as an elevated consumption of NO leading to tracheal hyperresponsiveness to MCh. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Regulation of Na(+)/H(+) exchanger NHE3 by glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist exendin-4 in renal proximal tubule cells

Carraro-Lacroix LR, Malnic G, Girardi AC. Regulation of Na(+)/H(+) exchanger NHE3 by glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist exendin-4 in renal proximal tubule cells. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 297: F1647-F1655, 2009. First published September 23, 2009; doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00082.2009.-The gut incretin hormone glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) is released in response to ingested nutrients and enhances insulin secretion. In addition to its insulinotropic properties, GLP-1 has been shown to have natriuretic actions paralleled by a diminished proton secretion. We therefore studied the role of the GLP-1 receptor agonist exendin-4 in modulating the activity of Na(+)/H(+) exchanger NHE3 in LLC-PK(1) cells. We found that NHE3-mediated Na(+)-dependent intracellular pH (pH(i)) recovery decreased similar to 50% after 30-min treatment with 1 nM exendin-4. Pharmacological inhibitors and cAMP analogs that selectively activate protein kinase A (PKA) or the exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (EPAC) demonstrated that regulation of NHE3 activity by exendin-4 requires activation of both cAMP downstream effectors. This conclusion was based on the following observations: 1) the PKA antagonist H-89 completely prevented the effect of the PKA activator but only partially blocked the exendin-4-induced NHE3 inhibition; 2) the MEK1/2 inhibitor U-0126 abolished the effect of the EPAC activator but only diminished the exendin-4-induced NHE3 inhibition; 3) combination of H-89 and U-0126 fully prevented the effect of exendin-4 on NHE3; 4) no additive effect in the inhibition of NHE3 activity was observed when exendin-4, PKA, and EPAC activators were used together. Mechanistically, the inhibitory effect of exendin-4 on pHi recovery was associated with an increase of NHE3 phosphorylation. Conversely, this inhibition took place without changes in the surface expression of the transporter. We conclude that GLP-1 receptor agonists modulate sodium homeostasis in the kidney, most likely by affecting NHE3 activity.

Brainstem oxytocinergic modulation of heart rate control in rats: effects of hypertension and exercise training

Oxytocinergic brainstem projections participate in the autonomic control of the circulation. We investigated the effects of hypertension and training on cardiovascular parameters after oxytocin (OT) receptor blockade within the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) and NTS OT and OT receptor expression. Male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats were trained (55% of maximal exercise capacity) or kept sedentary for 3 months and chronically instrumented (NTS and arterial cannulae). Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR) were measured at rest and during an acute bout of exercise after NTS pretreatment with vehicle or OT antagonist (20 pmol of OT antagonist (200 nl of vehicle)-1). Oxytocin and OT receptor were quantified (35S-oligonucleotide probes, in situ hybridization) in other groups of rats. The SHR exhibited high MAP and HR (P < 0.05). Exercise training improved treadmill performance and reduced basal HR (on average -11%) in both groups, but did not change basal MAP. Blockade of NTS OT receptor increased exercise tachycardia only in trained groups, with a larger effect on trained WKY rats (+31 +/- 9 versus +12 +/- 3 beats min-1 in the trained SHR). Hypertension specifically reduced NTS OT receptor mRNA density (-46% versus sedentary WKY rats, P < 0.05); training did not change OT receptor density, but significantly increased OT mRNA expression (+2.5-fold in trained WKY rats and +15% in trained SHR). Concurrent hypertension- and training-induced plastic (peptide/receptor changes) and functional adjustments (HR changes) of oxytocinergic control support both the elevated basal HR in the SHR group and the slowing of the heart rate (rest and exercise) observed in trained WKY rats and SHR.

Ligand induced interaction of thyroid hormone receptor beta with its coregulators

Thyroid hormones exert most of their physiological effects through two thyroid hormone receptor (TR) subtypes, TR alpha and TR beta, which associate with many transcriptional coregulators to mediate activation or repression of target genes. The search for selective TR beta ligands has been stimulated by the finding that several pharmacological actions mediated by TR beta might be beneficial in medical conditions such as obesity, hypercholesterolemia and diabetes. Here, we present a new methodology which employs surface plasmon resonance to investigate the interactions between TR beta ligand binding domain (LBD) complexes and peptides derived from the nuclear receptor interaction motifs of two of its coregulators, SRC2 and DAX1. The effect of several TR beta ligands, including the TR beta selective agonist GC-I and the TR beta selective antagonist NH-3, were investigated. We also determined the kinetic rate constants for the interaction of TR beta-T3 with both coregulators, and accessed the thermodynamic parameters for the interaction with DAX1. Our findings Suggest that flexibility plays an important role in the interaction between the receptor and its coregulators. and point out important aspects of experimental design that should be addressed when using TR beta LBD and its agonists. Furthermore, the methodology described here may be useful for the identification of new TR beta ligands. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Adenosine Modulatesa alpha(2)-Adrenergic Receptors within Specific Subnuclei of the Nucleus Tractus Solitarius in Normotensive and Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats

Adenosine Is known to modulate neuronal activity within the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS). The modulatory effect of adenosine A, receptors (A(1R)) on alpha(2)-adrenoceptors (Adr(2R)) was evaluated using quantitative radioautography within NTS subnuclei and using neuronal culture of normotensive (WKY) and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Radioautography was used in a saturation experiment to measure Adr2R binding parameters (B(max), K(d)) In the presence of 3 different concentrations of N(6)-cyclopentyladenosine (CPA), an A(1R) agonist. Neuronal culture confirmed our radioautographic results. [(3)H]RX821002, an Adr(2R) antagonist, was used as a ligand for both approaches. The dorsomedial/dorsolateral subnucleus of WKY showed an increase in B(max) values (21%) Induced by 10 nmol/L of CPA. However, the subpostremal subnucleus showed a decrease in Kd values (24%) induced by 10 nmol/L of CPA. SHR showed the same pattern of changes as WKY within the same subnuclei; however, the modulatory effect of CPA was induced by I nmol/L (increased B(max), 17%; decreased K(d), 26%). Cell culture confirmed these results, because 10(-5) and 10(-7) mol/L of CPA promoted an Increase in [3H]RX821002 binding of WKY (53%) and SHR cells (48%), respectively. DPCPX, an AIR antagonist, was used to block the modulatory effect promoted by CPA with respect to Adr2R binding. In conclusion, our study shows for the first time an interaction between A(1R) that increases the binding of Adr2R within specific subnuclei of the NTS. This may be important In understanding the complex autonomic response induced by adenosine within the NTS. In addition, changes in interactions between receptors might be relevant to understanding the development of hypertension. (Hypertens Res 2008; 31: 2177-2186)

Ether-Bond-Containing Ionic Liquids and the Relevance of the Ether Bond Position to Transport Properties

The ionic liquids (ILs) 1-ethoxyethyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, [EtO-(CH(2))(2)MMI][Tf(2)N], and N-(ethoxyethyl)-N-methylmorpholinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, [EtO(CH(2))(2)MMor][Tf(2)N] were synthesized, and relevant properties, such as thermal stability, density, viscosity, electrochemical behavior, ionic conductivity, and self-diffusion coefficients for both ionic species, were measured and compared with those of their alkyl counterparts, 1-n-butyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, [BMMI][Tf(2)N], and N-n-butyl-N-methylpiperidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide,[BMP][Tf(2)N] and N-n-butyl-N-methylmorpholinium bis(trilfuoromethanesulfonyl)imide [BMMor][Tf(2)N][. This comparison was done to evaluate the effects caused by the presence of the ether bond in either the side chain or in the organic cation ring. The salt, LiTf(2)N, was added to the systems to estimate IL behavior with regard to lithium cation transport. Pure [EtO(CH(2))(2)MMI][Tf(2)N] and their LiTf(2)N solutions showed low viscosity and the highest conductivity among the ILs studied. The H(R) (AC conductivity/NMR calculated conductivity ratio) values showed that, after addition of LiTf(2)N, ILs containing the ether bond seemed to have a greater number of charged species. Structural reasons could explain these high observed HR values for [EtO(CH(2))(2)MMor][Tf(2)N].

Expression, Purification, Bioactivity, and Partial Characterization of a Recombinant Human Bone Morphogenetic Protein-7 Produced in Human 293T Cells

Bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7) is a secreted multifunctional growth factor of the TGF-beta superfamily, which is predominantly known for its osteoinductive properties and emerging potential for treatment of kidney diseases. The mature 34-38 kDa disulfide-linked homodimer protein plays a key role in the differentiation of mesenchymal cells into bone and cartilage. In this study, the full-length sequence of hBMP-7 was amplified and, then, cloned, expressed, and purified from the conditioned medium of 293T cells stably transfected with a lentiviral vector. The mature protein dimer form was properly secreted and recognized by anti-BMP-7 antibodies, and the protein was shown to be glycosilated by treatment with exoglycosidase, followed by western blotting. Moreover, the activity of the purified protein was demonstrated both in vitro, by alkaline phosphatase activity in C2C12 cells, and in vivo by induction of ectopic bone formation in Balb/c Nude mice after 21 days, respectively. This recombinant protein platform may be very useful for expression of different human cytokines and other proteins for medical applications.

Oncostatin M is a novel glucocorticoid-dependent neuroinflammatory factor that enhances oligodendrocyte precursor cell activity in demyelinated sites

The innate immune reaction to tissue injury is a natural process, which can have detrimental effects in the absence of negative feedbacks by glucocorticoids (GCs). Although acute lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge is relatively harmless to the brain parenchyma of adult animals, the endotoxin is highly neurotoxic in animals that are treated with the GC receptor antagonist RU486. This study investigated the role of cytokines of the gp130-related family in these effects, because they are essential components of the inflammatory process that provide survival signals to neurons. Intracerebral LPS injection stimulated expression of several members of this family of cytokines, but oncostatin M (Osm) was the unique ligand to be completely inhibited by the RU486 treatment. OSM receptor (Osmr) is expressed mainly in astrocytes and endothelial cells following LPS administration and GCs are directly responsible for its transcriptional activation in the presence of the endotoxin. In a mouse model of demyelination, exogenous OSM significantly modulated the expression of genes involved in the mobilization of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), differentiation of oligodendrocyte, and production of myelin. In conclusion, the activation of OSM signaling is a mechanism activated by TLR4 in the presence of negative feedback by GCs on the innate immune system of the brain. OSM absence is associated with detrimental effects of LPS, whereas exogenous OSM favors repair response to demyelinated regions. (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Investigating the Effects of Mifepristone (RU486) in the Behavioral, Hormonal and Central Responses to Acute Stress

Depression is associated with glucocorticoid hypersecretion, due to dysfunction of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocorticol axis (HPA-axis). Because excess glucocorticoids are associated with depressive-like features in humans, glucocorticoid receptor antagonists are currently being tested for antidepressant efficacy in clinical trials. In the current study the hypothesis that mifepristone (RU486), a glucocorticoid receptor antagonist, would decrease the neuroendocrine and central HPA-axis responses to an acute stressor and attentuate depressive like behavior in an animal model of behavioral helplessness (forced swim test) was tested. Adult male rats were treated with 10 mglkg RU486 (subcutaneous) for five days and then exposed to a IO-minute forced swim test (FST), conducted in Plexiglas cylinders. FST sessions were videotaped for later analysis of behavioral immobility. Plasma ACTH and corticosterone CORT were measured at 15min and 90min after FST cessation. Animals were perfused and brains were collected for immunocytochemical assessment of c-Fos expression in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), a brain region implicated in both depression and central control of the HPA axis. RU486 significantly decreased peak ACTH and CORT concentrations following FST exposure. In addition, glucocorticoid negative feedback was at1enuated in RU486-treated animals exposed to the FST. Exposure to FST alone induced c-FOS expression in the mPFC, as measured by the number of c-Fos positive neurons. Treatment with RU486 significantly increased the number of rnPFC c-Fos positive cell following FST exposure. The behavioral data obtained from FST paradigm, demonstrated that RU486 decreased immobility in the FST illustrating the potential efficacy of this drug as an antidepressant. Collectively these data suggest that RU486 dampens HPA-axis responses to stress, possibly by enhancing the excitability of stress-inhibitory neurons in the mPFC. This is particularly exciting, given the fact that this neural region is associated with decreased neural activity during depression in humans.

Contribuição da Endotelina-1 para o tônus coronariano de seres humanos: experimentos com o antagonista dos receptores ET-A

Introdução. A endotelina-1, o mais potente vasoconstritor endógeno, atua através de dois receptores de afinidades distintas, conhecidos como ETA e ETB. Os receptores ETA estão localizados predominantemente na musculatura lisa vascular e são os principais mediadores do efeito vasoconstritor da endotelina-1. Diversos estudos demonstraram que a endotelina-1 exerce um papel importante na manutenção do tônus arterial basal. Entretanto, a contribuição da endotelina-1 para o tônus coronariano basal em seres humanos, especialmente em coronárias com lesões ateroscleróticas, permanece alvo de interesse. Objetivos. Os objetivos deste estudo foram avaliar a contribuição da endotelina-1 no tônus coronariano epicárdico e na microcirculação em coronárias livres de lesões obstrutivas e em coronárias com lesões ateroscleróticas e comparar o método da contagem TIMI com o Doppler intracoronário na detecção de alterações do fluxo sangüíneo em resposta à adenosina. Métodos. Um total de 16 pacientes, sendo oito destes no grupo com coronárias livres de lesões obstrutivas e oito pacientes com lesões coronarianas obstrutivas, foram incluídos neste estudo. Todos pacientes receberam a infusão seletiva intracoronária de BQ-123, um inibidor específico dos receptores ETA da endotelina-1, durante 60 minutos. Adenosina e nitroglicerina foram administradas em bolus no tronco da coronária esquerda. O efeito do BQ-123 no diâmetro coronário epicárdico foi avaliado por angiografia quantitativa realizada a cada 15 minutos ao longo da infusão da droga. O efeito na microcirculação coronária foi avaliado por variações no fluxo sangüíneo medido por guia-Doppler e pelo método da contagem TIMI. Resultados. A infusão de BQ-123 resultou em aumento de 7% do diâmetro coronário e de 19% no fluxo sangüíneo volumétrico em pacientes com artérias livres de lesões obstrutivas (P < 0,001 para comparação com basal). O aumento do calibre do vaso ocorreu de forma progressiva e uniforme ao longo do vaso. Os pacientes com lesão aterosclerótica apresentaram um aumento de 16% (P < 0,001 para comparação com artérias livres de lesões obstrutivas) no diâmetro coronário e 28% no local da estenose. A velocidade do fluxo sangüíneo em coronárias livres de lesões obstrutivas não se alterou significativamente tanto na medida por Doppler como pelo método de contagem TIMI. Houve uma correlação de 0,67 (P < 0,05) entre o método da contagem TIMI e o Doppler para detecção de alterações na velocidade do fluxo sangüíneo em resposta à adenosina. Conclusões. A infusão seletiva intracoronária do inibidor específico dos receptores ETA da endotelina-1 em seres humanos pode ser feita de maneira segura. A endotelina-1 exerce um papel importante na manutenção do tônus coronariano basal em artérias livres de lesões obstrutivas, sendo responsável pela quase totalidade do tônus constritor aumentado presente em coronárias com lesões ateroscleróticas. O método da contagem TIMI apresenta uma boa correlação com o Doppler para medida do fluxo sangüíneo em condições de hiperêmia.

Influência do tratamento crônico com cafeína em modelos animais de esquizofrenia : parâmetros cognitivos e comportamentais

A esquizofrenia envolve um conjunto de sintomas de sensopercepção, cognição e afeto que compromete significativamente a vida do sujeito. O mais aceito modelo para se entender essa doença é o modelo de hiperatividade dopaminérgica, pois drogas como anfetamina e cocaína, que aumentam a atividade dopaminérgica, mimetizam alguns sintomas dessa patologia, e os fármacos usados para o tratamento são os que bloqueiam os receptores de dopamina. Além da dopamina, o sistema glutamatérgico também tem sido relacionado à esquizofrenia, pelo fato de antagonistas de receptores glutamatérgicos do tipo NMDA, tais como PCP, MK-801 e cetamina, provocarem alguns sintomas dessa doença, como desorganização cognitiva e delírios em pessoas saudáveis. adenosina, por sua vez, desempenha um papel neuromodulatório tanto da atividade dopaminérgica quanto da atividade glutamatérgica, inibindo o tônus de ambos neurotransmissores por diferentes vias. Assim, sugerimos que antagonistas de receptores adenosinérgicos, como a cafeína, também seriam um modelo farmacológico para a doença. Com base nisso, demonstramos previamente que camundongos tratados cronicamente com cafeína desenvolvem tolerância cruzada ao efeito do antagonista NMDA MK-801 em provocar hiperlocomoção, mas não em seu déficit cognitivo na esquiva inibitória. Buscando ampliar e melhor caracterizar essa interação, os seguintes parâmetros foram avaliados em camundongos: atividade locomotora realizando-se as curvas de dose e de tempo; memória de trabalho, avaliada na tarefa de alternação tardia; memória de longa duração, avaliada na tarefa de esquiva inibitória e a avaliação de ataxia. Os resultados nos mostraram que camundongos subcronicamente tratados com cafeína na bebida (1 mg/mL, por 1, 3, ou 7 dias) apresentaram habituação semelhante entre os grupos e que MK-801 (0,25 mg/kg, i.p.) produziu hiperlocomoção nos animais tratados com água e 1 dia de cafeína, com efeito diminuído depois de 3 dias e praticamente abolido depois de 7 dias. Depois de 7 dias, o efeito também foi dose-dependente, sem tolerância cruzada na dose de 0,1 mg/mL, intermediária na dose de 0,3 mg/mL e total a 1,0 mg/mL. Os escores de ataxia induzidos por 0,5 mg/kg de MK-801 não foram afetados pelo tratamento com cafeína por 7 dias a 1 mg/mL, mas uma hiperlocomoção transitória foi observada. O tratamento com cafeína por 7 dias a 1 mg/mL preveniu os déficits induzidos por 0,01 mg/kg de MK-801 na tarefa de esquiva inibitória e os atenuou, a 0,4 mg/kg de MK-801, na tarefa de alternação tardia, no labirinto em T. Conclui-se, então, que a hiperlocomoção e os déficits cognitivos – mas não a ataxia – induzidos por MK-801 podem estar influenciados pela atividade reduzida da adenosina. Assim, os estudos sobre a ação da adenosina podem se fazer relevantes para a melhor compreensão da neurobiologia da esquizofrenia. Estes resultados são concordantes com o novo modelo proposto, que é o de hipofunção adenosinérgica na esquizofrenia.

Modelos organizacionais e normatividade institucional: estudo de caso da SABESP S.A.

The present paper aspires to join two different debates: (i) what is the State’s best organizational model to promote distinctive public services; and (ii) what role Law should perform in the promotion of a nation’s economic and social development. More specifically, this study examines whether the institutions created by the Brazilian normative system are able to balance the antagonist interests of the State and minority shareholders in a Government-Controlled Corporation. In this pursuit, this paper analyzes the changes that occurred in SABESP S.A. during the period between the years of 2000 – 2010, of major transformations in the Brazilian Water and Sewage sector. At that time, the company was introduced to the Novo Mercado of BM&FBovespa, was forced to execute agreements with conceding authorities and started to be monitored by ARSESP, an independent regulatory agency. Initial findings suggest that these institutions were able to create incentives for the company to strive for a more efficient performance, often succeeding in aligning the contrasting interests of the State and minority shareholders. Final conclusions are that: (i) Government-Controlled Corporations can be powerful public policy promotion instruments in sectors that are complex and capital intensive; and (ii) Law can and should perform a much more active role in sponsoring economic and social development than merely acting to diminish transaction costs to allow for the adequate functioning of markets.

Gestão pública de megaeventos esportivos no Brasil: a experiência paulistana na realização da Copa do Mundo FIFA

Esta pesquisa se propôs a investigar a gestão pública da 20ª edição da Copa do Mundo FIFA, realizada no Brasil em 2014. Contestada popularmente por milhares de brasileiros, o megaevento esportivo teve suas contradições, principalmente em relação aos altos gastos públicos e à lucrativa participação da Federação Internacional de Futebol (FIFA). Durante os seus preparativos e realização, aconteceu um dos mais duradouros ciclos de protestos da história recente do Brasil, o que destaca a insatisfação de muitos brasileiros em relação aos investimentos dos governos federal, estaduais e municipais para a sua realização. Com recorte mais aprofundado para a gestão do megaevento na cidade de São Paulo, o trabalho procurou compreender os acordos entre as partes e analisar a relação entre as instituições – a FIFA e os Governos – na operacionalização e decisões sobre o megaevento. Além disso, destaca as interfaces estabelecidas entre governos e a sociedade civil, em sua diversidade identificada empiricamente, e aprofunda nas inflexões das reivindicações populares e protestos na gestão do megaevento pela prefeitura paulistana. O estudo é um estudo de caso único e, portanto, foi realizado com métodos qualitativos de pesquisa. Foram utilizadas fontes múltiplas de coleta que possibilitaram a triangulação dos dados obtidos e o aumento da validade dos resultados. Foram feitas observações diretas durante os protestos e na região de impacto dos empreendimentos da Copa, coleta em documentos oficiais, legislações, atas, contratos e matérias jornalísticas e entrevistas com atores-chave dos governos federal e municipal, com ativistas e manifestantes, líderes comunitários e representantes de organizações da sociedade civil. A pesquisa apontou que os megaeventos esportivos são um importante tema de pesquisa pelo mundo e têm se revelado como uma relevante preocupação em países em desenvolvimento, além de terem se tornado um importante instrumento político para a promoção da imagem dos países-sede no exterior e para a projeção de partidos nos territórios nacionais. Seus resultados destacam a formação de campos antagônicos entre governos e sociedade civil e a formação de arenas de conflito também entre os atores sociais. Embora haja visto alguns esforços pela transparência da gestão, não se pode dizer que a Copa do Mundo no Brasil teve nível ideal de transparência, tampouco de participação social. Se por um lado houve esforços para se aprimorar a transparência, por outro, os canais de participação social instituídos não expressaram relevância para a gestão pública do megaevento. As interfaces entre governos e a sociedade civil foram identificadas, assim como seus efeitos e inflexões sobre a gestão do mundial. A principal interface destacada se deu no nível da rua e se afirmou na forma do enfrentamento entre manifestantes e a polícia. A segunda mais evidente se consolidou na negociação direta entre comunitários vulneráveis às obras da Copa e gestores municipais. Os efeitos dos protestos de rua sobre a ação dos governos se destacou na atividade policial, que usou a violência e a repressão como principais respostas ao conjunto de manifestações, e na criação de espaços de negociação direta com as comunidades, este influenciado mais diretamente pela formação de grupos de reivindicação, como o Comitê Popular da Copa, e pela resistência da própria comunidade. A gestão da Copa do Mundo no Brasil foi complexa e evidenciou, do ponto de vista das relações federativas, alguns problemas entre município, estado e União, que tratam da coordenação de programas, políticas ou ações, neste caso, um megaevento esportivo, de gestão compartilhada. O caso aponta dissonâncias e desalinhamentos entre governo federal, estadual e municipal sobre as práticas de diálogo, negociação, transparência e participação social. A pesquisa destaca a formação de um conjunto social mais atento, crítico e politizado, que reivindica, contesta e ocupa as ruas demonstrando sua insatisfação com governos, sistemas políticos e formas de representação. Aponta para resultados mais tangíveis e relações mais harmônicas entre governos e população quando são implementadas formas alternativas de participação e envolvimento social, sobretudo espaços e processos em que há lugar para a negociação e inserção da sociedade civil nos processos decisórios

Functionalization of dendrimers for improved gene delivery to mesenchymal stem cell

Disease, injury, and age problems compromise human quality of life and continuously motivate the search for new and more efficacious therapeutic approaches. The field of Tissue Regeneration and Engineering has greatly evolved over the last years, mainly due to the combination of the important advances verified in Biomaterials Science and Engineering with those of Cell and Molecular Biology. In particular, a new and promising area arose – Nanomedicine – that takes advantage of the extremely small size and especial chemical and physical properties of Nanomaterials, offering powerful tools for health improvement. Research on Stem Cells, the self-renewing progenitors of body tissues, is also challenging to the medical and scientific communities, being expectable the appearance of new and exciting stem cell-based therapies in the next years. The control of cell behavior (namely, of cell proliferation and differentiation) is of key importance in devising strategies for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering. Cytokines, growth factors, transcription factors and other signaling molecules, most of them proteins, have been identified and found to regulate and support tissue development and regeneration. However, the application of these molecules in long-term regenerative processes requires their continuous presence at high concentrations as they usually present short half-lives at physiological conditions and may be rapidly cleared from the body. Alternatively, genes encoding such proteins can be introduced inside cells and be expressed using cell’s machinery, allowing an extended and more sustained production of the protein of interest (gene therapy). Genetic engineering of stem cells is particularly attractive because of their self-renewal capability and differentiation potential. For Tissue Regeneration and Engineering purposes, the patient’s own stem cells can be genetically engineered in vitro and, after, introduced in the body (with or without a scaffold) where they will not only modulate the behavior of native cells (stem cell-mediated gene therapy), but also directly participate in tissue repair. Cells can be genetically engineered using viral and non-viral systems. Viruses, as a result of millions of years of evolution, are very effective for the delivery of genes in several types of cells, including cells from primary sources. However, the risks associated with their use (like infection and immunogenic reactions) are driving the search for non-viral systems that will efficiently deliver genetic material into cells. Among them, chemical methods that are promising and being investigated use cationic molecules as carriers for DNA. In this case, gene delivery and gene expression level remain relatively low when primary cells are used. The main goal of this thesis was to develop and assess the in vitro potential of polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers based carriers to deliver genes to mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). PAMAM dendrimers are monodispersive, hyperbranched and nanospherical molecules presenting unique characteristics that make them very attractive vehicles for both drug and gene delivery. Although they have been explored for gene delivery in a wide range of cell lines, the interaction and the usefulness of these molecules in the delivery of genes to MSCs remains a field to be explored. Adult MSCs were chosen for the studies due to their potential biomedical applications (they are considered multipotent cells) and because they present several advantages over embryonic stem cells, such as easy accessibility and the inexistence of ethical restrictions to their use. This thesis is divided in 5 interconnected chapters. Chapter I provides an overview of the current literature concerning the various non-viral systems investigated for gene delivery in MSCs. Attention is devoted to physical methods, as well as to chemical methods that make use of polymers (natural and synthetic), liposomes, and inorganic nanoparticles as gene delivery vectors. Also, it summarizes the current applications of genetically engineered mesenchymal stem cells using non-viral systems in regenerative medicine, with special focus on bone tissue regeneration. In Chapter II, the potential of native PAMAM dendrimers with amine termini to transfect MSCs is evaluated. The level of transfection achieved with the dendrimers is, in a first step, studied using a plasmid DNA (pDNA) encoding for the β-galactosidase reporter gene. The effect of dendrimer’s generation, cell passage number, and N:P ratio (where N= number of primary amines in the dendrimer; P= number of phosphate groups in the pDNA backbone) on the level of transfection is evaluated, being the values always very low. In a second step, a pDNA encoding for bone morphogenetic protein-2, a protein that is known for its role in MSCs proliferation and differentiation, is used. The BMP-2 content produced by transfected cells is evaluated by an ELISA assay and its effect on the osteogenic markers is analyzed through several classical assays including alkaline phosphatase activity (an early marker of osteogenesis), osteocalcin production, calcium deposition and mineralized nodules formation (late osteogenesis markers). Results show that a low transfection level is enough to induce in vitro osteogenic differentiation in MSCs. Next, from Chapter III to Chapter V, studies are shown where several strategies are adopted to change the interaction of PAMAM dendrimers with MSCs cell membrane and, as a consequence, to enhance the levels of gene delivery. In Chapter III, generations 5 and 6 of PAMAM dendrimers are surface functionalized with arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) containing peptides – experiments with dendrimers conjugated to 4, 8 and 16 RGD units were performed. The underlying concept is that by including the RGD integrin-binding motif in the design of the vectors and by forming RGD clusters, the level of transfection will increase as MSCs highly express integrins at their surface. Results show that cellular uptake of functionalized dendrimers and gene expression is enhanced in comparison with the native dendrimers. Furthermore, gene expression is dependent on both the electrostatic interaction established between the dendrimer moiety and the cell surface and the nanocluster RGD density. In Chapter IV, a new family of gene delivery vectors is synthesized consisting of a PAMAM dendrimer (generation 5) core randomly linked at the periphery to alkyl hydrophobic chains that vary in length and number. Herein, the idea is to take advantage of both the cationic nature of the dendrimer and the capacity of lipids to interact with biological membranes. These new vectors show a remarkable capacity for internalizing pDNA, being this effect positively correlated with the –CH2– content present in the hydrophobic corona. Gene expression is also greatly enhanced using the new vectors but, in this case, the higher efficiency is shown by the vectors containing the smallest hydrophobic chains. Finally, chapter V reports the synthesis, characterization and evaluation of novel gene delivery vectors based on PAMAM dendrimers (generation 5) conjugated to peptides with high affinity for MSCs membrane binding - for comparison, experiments are also done with a peptide with low affinity binding properties. These systems present low cytotoxicity and transfection efficiencies superior to those of native dendrimers and partially degraded dendrimers (Superfect®, a commercial product). Furthermore, with this biomimetic approach, the process of gene delivery is shown to be cell surface receptor-mediated. Overall, results show the potential of PAMAM dendrimers to be used, as such or modified, in Tissue Regeneration and Engineering. To our knowledge, this is the first time that PAMAM dendrimers are studied as gene delivery vehicles in this context and using, as target, a cell type with clinical relevancy. It is shown that the cationic nature of PAMAM dendrimers with amine termini can be synergistically combined with surface engineering approaches, which will ultimately result in suitable interactions with the cytoplasmic membrane and enhanced pDNA cellular entry and gene expression. Nevertheless, the quantity of pDNA detected inside cell nucleus is always very small when compared with the bigger amount reaching cytoplasm (accumulation of pDNA is evident in the perinuclear region), suggesting that the main barrier to transfection is the nuclear membrane. Future work can then be envisaged based on the versatility of these systems as biomedical molecular materials, such as the conjugation of PAMAM dendrimers to molecules able to bind nuclear membrane receptors and to promote nuclear translocation.