Registration And Visualisation Of Deformation Maps From Terrestrial Radar Interferometry Using Photogrammetry And Structure From Motion

This paper describes a general workflow for the registration of terrestrial radar interferometric data with 3D point clouds derived from terrestrial photogrammetry and structure from motion. After the determination of intrinsic and extrinsic orientation parameters, data obtained by terrestrial radar interferometry were projected on point clouds and then on the initial photographs. Visualisation of slope deformation measurements on photographs provides an easily understandable and distributable information product, especially of inaccessible target areas such as steep rock walls or in rockfall run-out zones. The suitability and error propagation of the referencing steps and final visualisation of four approaches are compared: (a) the classic approach using a metric camera and stereo-image photogrammetry; (b) images acquired with a metric camera, automatically processed using structure from motion; (c) images acquired with a digital compact camera, processed with structure from motion; and (d) a markerless approach, using images acquired with a digital compact camera using structure from motion without artificial ground control points. The usability of the completely markerless approach for the visualisation of high-resolution radar interferometry assists the production of visualisation products for interpretation.

The deglaciation history of the Simplon region (southern Swiss Alps) constrained by 10Be exposure dating of ice-molded bedrock surfaces

The deglaciation history of the Swiss Alps after the Last Glacial Maximum involved the decay of several ice domes and the subsequent disintegration of valley glaciers at high altitude. Here we use bedrock exposure dating to reconstruct the temporal and spatial pattern of ice retreat at the Simplon Pass (altitude: ���2000 m) located 40 km southwest of the ���Rh��ne ice dome���. Eleven 10Be exposure ages from glacially polished quartz veins and ice-molded bedrock surfaces cluster tightly between 13.5 �� 0.6 ka and 15.4 �� 0.6 ka (internal errors) indicating that the Simplon Pass depression became ice-free at 14.1 �� 0.4 ka (external error of mean age). This age constraint is interpreted to record the melting of the high valley glaciers in the Simplon Pass region during the warm B��lling���Aller��d interstadial shortly after the Oldest Dryas stadial. Two bedrock samples collected a few hundred meters above the pass depression yield older 10Be ages of 17.8 �� 0.6 ka and 18.0 �� 0.6 ka. These ages likely reflect the initial downwasting of the Rh��ne ice dome and the termination of the ice transfluence from the ice dome across the Simplon Pass toward the southern foreland. There, the retreat of the piedmont glacier in Val d���Ossola was roughly synchronous with the decay of the Rh��ne ice dome in the interior of the mountain belt, as shown by 10Be ages of 17.7 �� 0.9 ka and 16.1 �� 0.6 ka for a whaleback at ���500 m elevation near Montecrestese in northern Italy. In combination with well-dated paleoclimate records derived from lake sediments, our new age data suggest that during the deglaciation of the European Alps the decay of ice domes was approximately synchronous with the retreat of piedmont glaciers in the foreland and was followed by the melting of high-altitude valley glaciers after the transition from the Oldest Dryas to the B��lling���Aller��d, when mean annual temperatures rose rapidly by ���3 ��C.

Iron uptake and ferrokinetics in healthy male subjects of an iron-based oral phosphate binder (SBR759) labeled with the stable isotope 58 Fe

SBR759 is a novel polynuclear iron(III) oxide���hydroxide starch��sucrose��carbonate complex being developed for oral use in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients with hyperphosphatemia on hemodialysis. SBR759 binds inorganic phosphate released by food uptake and digestion in the gastro-intestinal tract increasing the fecal excretion of phosphate with concomitant reduction of serum phosphate concentrations. Considering the high content of ���20% w/w covalently bound iron in SBR759 and expected chronic administration to patients, absorption of small amounts of iron released from the drug substance could result in potential iron overload and toxicity. In a mechanistic iron uptake study, 12 healthy male subjects (receiving comparable low phosphorus-containing meal typical for CKD patients: ���1000 mg phosphate per day) were treated with 12 g (divided in 3 �� 4 g) of stable 58Fe isotope-labeled SBR759. The ferrokinetics of [58Fe]SBR759-related total iron was followed in blood (over 3 weeks) and in plasma (over 26 hours) by analyzing with high precision the isotope ratios of the natural iron isotopes 58Fe, 57Fe, 56Fe and 54Fe by multi-collector inductively coupled mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS). Three weeks following dosing, the subjects cumulatively absorbed on average 7.8 �� 3.2 mg (3.8���13.9 mg) iron corresponding to 0.30 �� 0.12% (0.15���0.54%) SBR759-related iron which amounts to approx. 5-fold the basal daily iron absorption of 1���2 mg in humans. SBR759 was well-tolerated and there was no serious adverse event and no clinically significant changes in the iron indices hemoglobin, hematocrit, ferritin concentration and transferrin saturation.

Continuous eclogite melting and variable refertilisation in upwelling heterogeneous mantle

Large-scale tectonic processes introduce a range of crustal lithologies into the Earth's mantle. These lithologies have been implicated as sources of compositional heterogeneity in mantle-derived magmas. The model being explored here assumes the presence of widely dispersed fragments of residual eclogite (derived from recycled oceanic crust), stretched and stirred by convection in the mantle. Here we show with an experimental study that these residual eclogites continuously melt during upwelling of such heterogeneous mantle and we characterize the melting reactions and compositional changes in the residue minerals. The chemical exchange between these partial melts and more refractory peridotite leads to a variably metasomatised mantle. Re-melting of these metasomatised peridotite lithologies at given pressures and temperatures results in diverse melt compositions, which may contribute to the observed heterogeneity of oceanic basalt suites. We also show that heterogeneous upwelling mantle is subject to diverse local freezing, hybridization and carbonate-carbon-silicate redox reactions along a mantle adiabat.

An iron stable isotope comparison between human erythrocytes and plasma

We present precise iron stable isotope ratios measured by multicollector-ICP mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) of human red blood cells (erythrocytes) and blood plasma from 12 healthy male adults taken during a clinical study. The accurate determination of stable isotope ratios in plasma first required substantial method development work, as minor iron amounts in plasma had to be separated from a large organic matrix prior to mass-spectrometric analysis to avoid spectroscopic interferences and shifts in the mass spectrometer's mass-bias. The 56Fe/54Fe ratio in erythrocytes, expressed as permil difference from the ���IRMM-014��� iron reference standard (��56/54Fe), ranges from ���3.1��� to ���2.2���, a range typical for male Caucasian adults. The individual subject erythrocyte iron isotope composition can be regarded as uniform over the 21 days investigated, as variations (��0.059 to ��0.15���) are mostly within the analytical precision of reference materials. In plasma, ��56/54Fe values measured in two different laboratories range from ���3.0��� to ���2.0���, and are on average 0.24��� higher than those in erythrocytes. However, this difference is barely resolvable within one standard deviation of the differences (0.22���). Taking into account the possible contamination due to hemolysis (iron concentrations are only 0.4 to 2 ppm in plasma compared to approx. 480 ppm in erythrocytes), we model the pure plasma ��56/54Fe to be on average 0.4��� higher than that in erythrocytes. Hence, the plasma iron isotope signature lies between that of the liver and that of erythrocytes. This difference can be explained by redox processes involved during cycling of iron between transferrin and ferritin.

Benchmarking the simulation of Cr isotope fractionation

A benchmark problem set consisting of four problem levels was developed for the simulation of Cr isotope fractionation in 1D and 2D domains. The benchmark is based on a recent field study where Cr(VI) reduction and accompanying Cr isotope fractionation occurs abiotically by an aqueous reaction with dissolved Fe 2+ (Wanner et al., 2012., Appl. Geochem., 27, 644���662). The problem set includes simulation of the major processes affecting the Cr isotopic composition such as the dissolution of various Cr(VI) bearing minerals, fractionation during abiotic aqueous Cr(VI) reduction, and non-fractionating precipitation of Cr(III) as sparingly soluble Cr-hydroxide. Accuracy of the presented solutions was ensured by running the problems with four well-established reactive transport modeling codes: TOUGHREACT, MIN3P, CRUNCHFLOW, and FLOTRAN. Results were also compared with an analytical Rayleigh-type fractionation model. An additional constraint on the correctness of the results was obtained by comparing output from the problem levels simulating Cr isotope fractionation with the corresponding ones only simulating bulk concentrations. For all problem levels, model to model comparisons showed excellent agreement, suggesting that for the tested geochemical processes any code is capable of accurately simulating the fate of individual Cr isotopes.

Dehydration of the zeolite merlinoite from the Khibiny massif, Russia: an <I>in situ</I> temperature-dependent single-crystal X-ray study

Dehydration behaviour of the zeolite merlinoite, NaK11[Al12Si20O64]��15H2O, from the Khibiny massif (Russia) was studied by means of single-crystal X-ray diffraction conjoined with step-wise heating to 225 C. At room temperature merlinoite has the space group Immm with a = 14.0312(5), b = 14.2675(6), c = 10.0874(4) ��, and V = 2019.40(14) ��3. At 75 ��C the merlinoite structure undergoes pronounced dehydration accompanied by a phase transition to a structure that has the space group P42/nmc and remains consistent at elevated temperature. A fully dehydrated phase occurs at 200 ��C (at 225 ��C: a = 13.341(4), b = 13.341(4), c = 9.707(4) ��, V = 1727.7(12) ��3). Dehydration-induced framework distortion and symmetry were found to be different from those observed for synthetic potassium merlinoite with the K11.5[Al11.5Si20.5O64]��15H2O composition.

Vapnikite Ca<SUB>3</SUB>UO<SUB>6</SUB> ��� a new double-perovskite mineral from pyrometamorphic larnite rocks of the Jabel Harmun, Palestinian Autonomy, Israel

The new mineral species vapnikite, Ca3UO6, was found in larnite pyrometamorphic rocks of the Hatrurim Formation at Jabel Harmun in the Judean desert, Palestinian Autonomy, Israel. Vapnikite is an analogue of the synthetic ordered double-perovskite ��-Ca3UO6 and is isostructural with the natural fluorperovskite ��� cryolite Na3AlF6. Vapnikite Ca3UO6 (P21/n,Z = 2, a = 5.739(1), b = 5.951(1), c = 8.312(1) ��, �� = 90.4(1)��, V = 283.9(1) ��3) forms yellow-brown xenomorphic grains with a strong vitreous lustre. Small grains up to 20 ��� 30 m m in size are wedged between larnite, brownmillerite and ye'elimite. Vapnikite has irregular fracture, cleavage and parting were not observed. The calculated density is 5.322 g cm���3, the microhardness is VHN25 = 534 kg mm���2 (mean of seven measurements) corresponding to the hardness of ~5 on the Mohs scale. The crystal structure of vapnikite Ca3UO6 differs from that of its synthetic analogue ��-Ca3UO6 by having a larger degree of Ca, U disorder. Vapnikite formed at the high-temperature retrograde stage of pyrometamorphism when larnite rocks were altered by fluids/melts of high alkalinity.

Ediacaran 2,500-km-long synchronous deep continental subduction in the West Gondwana Orogen

The deeply eroded West Gondwana Orogen is a major continental collision zone that exposes numerous occurrences of deeply subducted rocks, such as eclogites. The position of these eclogites marks the suture zone between colliding cratons, and the age of metamorphism constrains the transition from subduction-dominated tectonics to continental collision and mountain building. Here we investigate the metamorphic conditions and age of high-pressure and ultrahigh-pressure eclogites from Mali, Togo and NE-Brazil and demonstrate that continental subduction occurred within 20 million years over at least a 2,500-km-long section of the orogen during the Ediacaran. We consider this to be the earliest evidence of large-scale deep-continental subduction and consequent appearance of Himalayan-scale mountains in the geological record. The rise and subsequent erosion of such mountains in the Late Ediacaran is perfectly timed to deliver sediments and nutrients that are thought to have been necessary for the subsequent evolution of sustainable life on Earth.

Achieving a more realistic assessment of rockfall hazards by coupling three-dimensional process models and field-based tree-ring data

Sound knowledge of the spatial and temporal patterns of rockfalls is fundamental for the management of this very common hazard in mountain environments. Process-based, three-dimensional simulation models are nowadays capable of reproducing the spatial distribution of rockfall occurrences with reasonable accuracy through the simulation of numerous individual trajectories on highly-resolved digital terrain models. At the same time, however, simulation models typically fail to quantify the ���real��� frequency of rockfalls (in terms of return intervals). The analysis of impact scars on trees, in contrast, yields real rockfall frequencies, but trees may not be present at the location of interest and rare trajectories may not necessarily be captured due to the limited age of forest stands. In this article, we demonstrate that the coupling of modeling with tree-ring techniques may overcome the limitations inherent to both approaches. Based on the analysis of 64 cells (40 m �� 40 m) of a rockfall slope located above a 1631-m long road section in the Swiss Alps, we illustrate results from 488 rockfalls detected in 1260 trees. We illustrate that tree impact data cannot only be used (i) to reconstruct the real frequency of rockfalls for individual cells, but that they also serve (ii) the calibration of the rockfall model Rockyfor3D, as well as (iii) the transformation of simulated trajectories into real frequencies. Calibrated simulation results are in good agreement with real rockfall frequencies and exhibit significant differences in rockfall activity between the cells (zones) along the road section. Real frequencies, expressed as rock passages per meter road section, also enable quantification and direct comparison of the hazard potential between the zones. The contribution provides an approach for hazard zoning procedures that complements traditional methods with a quantification of rockfall frequencies in terms of return intervals through a systematic inclusion of impact records in trees.