Frequency response analysis of layered ground in Ahmedabad during Bhuj earthquake

This paper presents the results of seismic response analysis of layered ground in Ahmedabad City during the earthquake in Bhuj on 26(th) January 2001. An attempt has been made to understand the reasons for the failure of multistoreyed buildings founded on soft alluvial deposits in Ahmedabad. Standard Penetration test at a site very close to the Sabarmati river belt was carried out for geotechnical investigations. The program SHAKE91, widely used in the field of earthquake engineering for computing the seismic response of horizontally layered soil deposits, was used to analyse the soil profile at the selected site considering the ground as one dimensional layered elastic system. The ground accelerations recorded at the ground floor of the Regional Passport Staff Quarters building, which is very close to the investigated site, was used as input motion. Also, Finite Element Analysis was carried out for different configurations of multistorey building frames for evaluating their natural frequencies and is compared with the predominant frequency of the layered soil system. The results reveal that the varying degree of damage to multistorey buildings in the close proximity of Sabarmati river area was essentially due to the large amplification of the ground and the near resonance condition.

Seismic Responses of a Hemispherical Alluvial Valley to SV Waves: A Three-Dimensional Analytical Approximation

An analytical solution to the three-dimensional scattering and diffraction of plane SV-waves by a saturated hemispherical alluvial valley in elastic half-space is obtained by using Fourier-Bessel series expansion technique. The hemispherical alluvial valley with saturated soil deposits is simulated with Biot's dynamic theory for saturated porous media. The following conclusions based on numerical results can be drawn: (1) there are a significant differences in the seismic response simulation between the previous single-phase models and the present two-phase model; (2) the normalized displacements on the free surface of the alluvial valley depend mainly on the incident wave angles, the dimensionless frequency of the incident SV waves and the porosity of sediments; (3) with the increase of the incident angle, the displacement distributions become more complicated; and the displacements on the free surface of the alluvial valley increase as the porosity of sediments increases.

Seismic triggering of submarine slides in soft cohesive soil deposits

The geological profile of many submerged slopes on the continental shelf consists of normally to lightly overconsolidated clays with depths ranging from a few meters to hundreds of meters. For these soils, earthquake loading can generate significant excess pore water pressures at depth, which can bring the slope to a state of instability during the event or at a later time as a result of pore pressure redistribution within the soil profile. Seismic triggering mechanisms of landslide initiation for these soils are analyzed with the use of a new simplified model for clays which predicts realistic variations of the stress-strain-strength relationships as well as pore pressure generation during dynamic loading in simple shear. The proposed model is implemented in a finite element program to analyze the seismic response of submarine slopes. These analyses provide an assessment of the critical depth and estimated displacements of the mobilized materials and thus are important components for the estimation of submarine landslide-induced tsunamis. © 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

An experimental and numerical investigation into the seismic performance of a multi-storey concentrically braced plan irregular structure

In this investigation, the seismic torsional response of a multi-storey concentrically braced frame (CBF) plan irregular structure is evaluated numerically and experimentally through a series of hybrid tests. CBF structures have become popular in seismic design because they are one of the most efficient types of steel structures to resist earthquake loading. However, their response under plan irregular conditions has received little focus mostly in part
due to their complex behaviour under seismic loading conditions. The majority of research on the seismic response of plan irregular structures is based purely on numerical investigations. This paper provides much needed experimental investigation of the seismic response of a CBF plan irregular structure with the aim of characterising the response of this class of structure. The effectiveness of the Eurocode 8 torsional effects provision as a method of designing for
low levels of mass eccentricity is evaluated. Results indicate that some of the observations made by purely numerical models are valid in that; torsionally stiff structures perform well and the stiff side of the structure is subjected to a greater ductility demand compared to the flexible side of the structure. The Eurocode 8 torsional effects provision is shown to be adequate in terms of ductility and interstorey drift however the structure performs poorly
in terms of floor rotation. Importantly, stiffness eccentricity occurs when the provision is applied to the structure when no mass eccentricity exists and results in a significant increase in floor rotations.

Influence of type wave and angle of incidence on seismic bending moments in pile foundations.

[EN]When analysing the seismic response of pile groups, a vertically-incident wavefiel is usually employed even though it doesnot necessarily correspond to the worst case scenario. This work aims to study the influence of both type of seismic body wave and its angle of incidence on the dynamic response of pile foundations.

Sulla progettazione in zona sismica di strutture dotate di dissipatori fluido-viscosi: proposta di una metodologia

CHAPTER 1:FLUID-VISCOUS DAMPERS In this chapter the fluid-viscous dampers are introduced. The first section is focused on the technical characteristics of these devices, their mechanical behavior and the latest evolution of the technology whose they are equipped. In the second section we report the definitions and the guide lines about the design of these devices included in some international codes. In the third section the results of some experimental tests carried out by some authors on the response of these devices to external forces are discussed. On this purpose we report some technical schedules that are usually enclosed to the devices now available on the international market. In the third section we show also some analytic models proposed by various authors, which are able to describe efficiently the physical behavior of the fluid-viscous dampers. In the last section we propose some cases of application of these devices on existing structures and on new-construction structures. We show also some cases in which these devices have been revealed good for aims that lies outside the reduction of seismic actions on the structures. CHAPTER 2:DESIGN METHODS PROPOSED IN LITERATURE In this chapter the more widespread design methods proposed in literature for structures equipped by fluid-viscous dampers are introduced. In the first part the response of sdf systems in the case of harmonic external force is studied, in the last part the response in the case of random external force is discussed. In the first section the equations of motion in the case of an elastic-linear sdf system equipped with a non-linear fluid-viscous damper undergoing a harmonic force are introduced. This differential problem is analytically quite complex and it’s not possible to be solved in a closed form. Therefore some authors have proposed approximate solution methods. The more widespread methods are based on equivalence principles between a non-linear device and an equivalent linear one. Operating in this way it is possible to define an equivalent damping ratio and the problem becomes linear; the solution of the equivalent problem is well-known. In the following section two techniques of linearization, proposed by some authors in literature, are described: the first technique is based on the equivalence of the energy dissipated by the two devices and the second one is based on the equivalence of power consumption. After that we compare these two techniques by studying the response of a sdf system undergoing a harmonic force. By introducing the equivalent damping ratio we can write the equation of motion of the non-linear differential problem in an implicit form, by dividing, as usual, for the mass of the system. In this way, we get a reduction of the number of variables, by introducing the natural frequency of the system. The equation of motion written in this form has two important properties: the response is linear dependent on the amplitude of the external force and the response is dependent on the ratio of the frequency of the external harmonic force and the natural frequency of the system only, and not on their single values. All these considerations, in the last section, are extended to the case of a random external force. CHAPTER 3: DESIGN METHOD PROPOSED In this chapter the theoretical basis of the design method proposed are introduced. The need to propose a new design method for structures equipped with fluid-viscous dampers arises from the observation that the methods reported in literature are always iterative, because the response affects some parameters included in the equation of motion (such as the equivalent damping ratio). In the first section the dimensionless parameterε is introduced. This parameter has been obtained from the definition of equivalent damping ratio. The implicit form of the equation of motion is written by introducing the parameter ε, instead of the equivalent damping ratio. This new implicit equation of motions has not any terms affected by the response, so that once ε is known the response can be evaluated directly. In the second section it is discussed how the parameter ε affects some characteristics of the response: drift, velocity and base shear. All the results described till this point have been obtained by keeping the non-linearity of the behavior of the dampers. In order to get a linear formulation of the problem, that is possible to solve by using the well-known methods of the dynamics of structures, as we did before for the iterative methods by introducing the equivalent damping ratio, it is shown how the equivalent damping ratio can be evaluated from knowing the value of ε. Operating in this way, once the parameter ε is known, it is quite easy to estimate the equivalent damping ratio and to proceed with a classic linear analysis. In the last section it is shown how the parameter ε could be taken as reference for the evaluation of the convenience of using non-linear dampers instead of linear ones on the basis of the type of external force and the characteristics of the system. CHAPTER 4: MULTI-DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS In this chapter the design methods of a elastic-linear mdf system equipped with non-linear fluidviscous dampers are introduced. It has already been shown that, in the sdf systems, the response of the structure can be evaluated through the estimation of the equivalent damping ratio (ξsd) assuming the behavior of the structure elastic-linear. We would to mention that some adjusting coefficients, to be applied to the equivalent damping ratio in order to consider the actual behavior of the structure (that is non-linear), have already been proposed in literature; such coefficients are usually expressed in terms of ductility, but their treatment is over the aims of this thesis and we does not go into further. The method usually proposed in literature is based on energy equivalence: even though this procedure has solid theoretical basis, it must necessary include some iterative process, because the expression of the equivalent damping ratio contains a term of the response. This procedure has been introduced primarily by Ramirez, Constantinou et al. in 2000. This procedure is reported in the first section and it is defined “Iterative Method”. Following the guide lines about sdf systems reported in the previous chapters, it is introduced a procedure for the assessment of the parameter ε in the case of mdf systems. Operating in this way the evaluation of the equivalent damping ratio (ξsd) can be done directly without implementing iterative processes. This procedure is defined “Direct Method” and it is reported in the second section. In the third section the two methods are analyzed by studying 4 cases of two moment-resisting steel frames undergoing real accelerogramms: the response of the system calculated by using the two methods is compared with the numerical response obtained from the software called SAP2000-NL, CSI product. In the last section a procedure to create spectra of the equivalent damping ratio, affected by the parameter ε and the natural period of the system for a fixed value of exponent α, starting from the elasticresponse spectra provided by any international code, is introduced.

The effect of two-dimensional squat elements on the seismic behavior of building structures

This thesis reports a study on the seismic response of two-dimensional squat elements and their effect on the behavior of building structures. Part A is devoted to the study of unreinforced masonry infills, while part B is focused on reinforced concrete sandwich walls. Part A begins with a comprehensive review of modelling techniques and code provisions for infilled frame structures. Then state-of-the practice techniques are applied for a real case to test the ability of actual modeling techniques to reproduce observed behaviors. The first developments towards a seismic-resistant masonry infill system are presented. Preliminary design recommendations for the seismic design of the seismic-resistant masonry infill are finally provided. Part B is focused on the seismic behavior of a specific reinforced concrete sandwich panel system. First, the results of in-plane psuudostatic cyclic tests are described. Refinements to the conventional modified compression field theory are introduced in order to better simulate the monotonic envelope of the cyclic response. The refinements deal with the constitutive model for the shotcrete in tension and the embedded bars. Then the hysteretic response of the panels is studied according to a continuum damage model. Damage state limits are identified. Design recommendations for the seismic design of the studied reinforced concrete sandwich walls are finally provided.

Numerical Model for the Dynamic Analysis of Pile Foundations

Programa de doctorado: Sistemas Inteligentes y Aplicaciones Numéricas en Ingeniería Instituto Universitario (SIANI)

Procedimenti di ottimizzazione di sistemi smorzati

La presente tesi riguarda lo studio di procedimenti di ottimizzazione di sistemi smorzati. In particolare, i sistemi studiati sono strutture shear-type soggette ad azioni di tipo sismico impresse alla base. Per effettuare l’ottimizzazione dei sistemi in oggetto si agisce sulle rigidezze di piano e sui coefficienti di smorzamento effettuando una ridistribuzione delle quantità suddette nei piani della struttura. È interessante effettuare l’ottimizzazione di sistemi smorzati nell’ottica della progettazione antisismica, in modo da ridurre la deformata della struttura e, conseguentemente, anche le sollecitazioni che agiscono su di essa. Il lavoro consta di sei capitoli nei quali vengono affrontate tre procedure numerico-analitiche per effettuare l’ottimizzazione di sistemi shear-type. Nel primo capitolo si studia l’ottimizzazione di sistemi shear-type agendo su funzioni di trasferimento opportunamente vincolate. In particolare, le variabili di progetto sono le rigidezze di piano, mentre i coefficienti di smorzamento e le masse di piano risultano quantità note e costanti durante tutto il procedimento di calcolo iterativo; per effettuare il controllo dinamico della struttura si cerca di ottenere una deformata pressoché rettilinea. Tale condizione viene raggiunta ponendo le ampiezze delle funzioni di trasferimento degli spostamenti di interpiano pari all’ampiezza della funzione di trasferimento del primo piano. Al termine della procedura si ottiene una ridistribuzione della rigidezza complessiva nei vari piani della struttura. In particolare, si evince un aumento della rigidezza nei piani più bassi che risultano essere quelli più sollecitati da una azione impressa alla base e, conseguentemente, si assiste ad una progressiva riduzione della variabile di progetto nei piani più alti. L’applicazione numerica di tale procedura viene effettuata nel secondo capitolo mediante l’ausilio di un programma di calcolo in linguaggio Matlab. In particolare, si effettua lo studio di sistemi a tre e a cinque gradi di libertà. La seconda procedura numerico-analitica viene presentata nel terzo capitolo. Essa riguarda l’ottimizzazione di sistemi smorzati agendo simultaneamente sulla rigidezza e sullo smorzamento e consta di due fasi. La prima fase ricerca il progetto ottimale della struttura per uno specifico valore della rigidezza complessiva e dello smorzamento totale, mentre la seconda fase esamina una serie di progetti ottimali in funzione di diversi valori della rigidezza e dello smorzamento totale. Nella prima fase, per ottenere il controllo dinamico della struttura, viene minimizzata la somma degli scarti quadratici medi degli spostamenti di interpiano. Le variabili di progetto, aggiornate dopo ogni iterazione, sono le rigidezze di piano ed i coefficienti di smorzamento. Si pone, inoltre, un vincolo sulla quantità totale di rigidezza e di smorzamento, e i valori delle rigidezze e dei coefficienti di smorzamento di ogni piano non devono superare un limite superiore posto all’inizio della procedura. Anche in questo caso viene effettuata una ridistribuzione delle rigidezze e dei coefficienti di smorzamento nei vari piani della struttura fino ad ottenere la minimizzazione della funzione obiettivo. La prima fase riduce la deformata della struttura minimizzando la somma degli scarti quadrarici medi degli spostamenti di interpiano, ma comporta un aumento dello scarto quadratico medio dell’accelerazione assoluta dell’ultimo piano. Per mantenere quest’ultima quantità entro limiti accettabili, si passa alla seconda fase in cui si effettua una riduzione dell’accelerazione attraverso l’aumento della quantità totale di smorzamento. La procedura di ottimizzazione di sistemi smorzati agendo simultaneamente sulla rigidezza e sullo smorzamento viene applicata numericamente, mediante l’utilizzo di un programma di calcolo in linguaggio Matlab, nel capitolo quattro. La procedura viene applicata a sistemi a due e a cinque gradi di libertà. L’ultima parte della tesi ha come oggetto la generalizzazione della procedura che viene applicata per un sistema dotato di isolatori alla base. Tale parte della tesi è riportata nel quinto capitolo. Per isolamento sismico di un edificio (sistema di controllo passivo) si intende l’inserimento tra la struttura e le sue fondazioni di opportuni dispositivi molto flessibili orizzontalmente, anche se rigidi in direzione verticale. Tali dispositivi consentono di ridurre la trasmissione del moto del suolo alla struttura in elevazione disaccoppiando il moto della sovrastruttura da quello del terreno. L’inserimento degli isolatori consente di ottenere un aumento del periodo proprio di vibrare della struttura per allontanarlo dalla zona dello spettro di risposta con maggiori accelerazioni. La principale peculiarità dell’isolamento alla base è la possibilità di eliminare completamente, o quantomeno ridurre sensibilmente, i danni a tutte le parti strutturali e non strutturali degli edifici. Quest’ultimo aspetto è importantissimo per gli edifici che devono rimanere operativi dopo un violento terremoto, quali ospedali e i centri operativi per la gestione delle emergenze. Nelle strutture isolate si osserva una sostanziale riduzione degli spostamenti di interpiano e delle accelerazioni relative. La procedura di ottimizzazione viene modificata considerando l’introduzione di isolatori alla base di tipo LRB. Essi sono costituiti da strati in elastomero (aventi la funzione di dissipare, disaccoppiare il moto e mantenere spostamenti accettabili) alternati a lamine in acciaio (aventi la funzione di mantenere una buona resistenza allo schiacciamento) che ne rendono trascurabile la deformabilità in direzione verticale. Gli strati in elastomero manifestano una bassa rigidezza nei confronti degli spostamenti orizzontali. La procedura di ottimizzazione viene applicata ad un telaio shear-type ad N gradi di libertà con smorzatori viscosi aggiunti. Con l’introduzione dell’isolatore alla base si passa da un sistema ad N gradi di libertà ad un sistema a N+1 gradi di libertà, in quanto l’isolatore viene modellato alla stregua di un piano della struttura considerando una rigidezza e uno smorzamento equivalente dell’isolatore. Nel caso di sistema sheat-type isolato alla base, poiché l’isolatore agisce sia sugli spostamenti di interpiano, sia sulle accelerazioni trasmesse alla struttura, si considera una nuova funzione obiettivo che minimizza la somma incrementata degli scarti quadratici medi degli spostamenti di interpiano e delle accelerazioni. Le quantità di progetto sono i coefficienti di smorzamento e le rigidezze di piano della sovrastruttura. Al termine della procedura si otterrà una nuova ridistribuzione delle variabili di progetto nei piani della struttura. In tal caso, però, la sovrastruttura risulterà molto meno sollecitata in quanto tutte le deformazioni vengono assorbite dal sistema di isolamento. Infine, viene effettuato un controllo sull’entità dello spostamento alla base dell’isolatore perché potrebbe raggiungere valori troppo elevati. Infatti, la normativa indica come valore limite dello spostamento alla base 25cm; valori più elevati dello spostamento creano dei problemi soprattutto per la realizzazione di adeguati giunti sismici. La procedura di ottimizzazione di sistemi isolati alla base viene applicata numericamente mediante l’utilizzo di un programma di calcolo in linguaggio Matlab nel sesto capitolo. La procedura viene applicata a sistemi a tre e a cinque gradi di libertà. Inoltre si effettua il controllo degli spostamenti alla base sollecitando la struttura con il sisma di El Centro e il sisma di Northridge. I risultati hanno mostrato che la procedura di calcolo è efficace e inoltre gli spostamenti alla base sono contenuti entro il limite posto dalla normativa. Giova rilevare che il sistema di isolamento riduce sensibilmente le grandezze che interessano la sovrastruttura, la quale si comporta come un corpo rigido al di sopra dell’isolatore. In futuro si potrà studiare il comportamento di strutture isolate considerando diverse tipologie di isolatori alla base e non solo dispositivi elastomerici. Si potrà, inoltre, modellare l’isolatore alla base con un modello isteretico bilineare ed effettuare un confronto con i risultati già ottenuti per il modello lineare.

Insertion of Dissipative Devices in Precast RC Structures

Viscous dampers are characterized as very effective devices applied for seismic design and retrofitting. The objective of this thesis is to apply the Five-Step Procedure ,developed by a research group in University of Bologna, for sizing the viscous dampers to be installed in an existing precast RC structure. The idea is to apply the viscous damping devices in different positions in the structure then to identify and compare the performance of all types placement position.

Low-cost retrofitting solutions for RC frames using masonry infill panels

A large number of reinforced concrete (RC) frame structures built in earthquake-prone areas such as Haiti are vulnerable to strong ground motions. Structures in developing countries need low-cost seismic retrofit solutions to reduce their vulnerability. This paper investigates the feasibility of using masonry infill walls to reduce deformations and damage caused by strong ground motions in brittle and weak RC frames designed only for gravity loads. A numerical experiment was conducted in which several idealized prototypes representing RC frame structures of school buildings damaged during the Port-au-Prince earthquake (Haiti, 2010) were strengthened by adding elements representing masonry infill walls arranged in different configurations. Each configuration was characterized by the ratio Rm of the area of walls in the direction of the ground motion (in plan) installed in each story to the total floor area. The numerical representations of these idealized RC frame structures with different values of Rm were (hypothetically) subjected to three major earthquakes with peak ground accelerations of approximately 0.5g. The results of the non-linear dynamic response analyses were summarized in tentative relationships between Rm and four parameters commonly used to characterize the seismic response of structures: interstory drift, Park and Ang indexes of damage, and total amount of energy dissipated by the main frame. It was found that Rm=4% is a reasonable minimum design value for seismic retrofitting purposes in cases in which available resources are not sufficient to afford conventional retrofit measures.

Shaking table tests of a RC frame structure equipped with hysteretic dampers

This paper provides partial results of an on-going research aimed at investigating the seismic response of reinforced concrete (RC) frames equipped with hysteretic-type energy dissipating devices (EDD). From a prototype RC frame structure designed only for gravity loads, a test model scaled in geometry to 2/5 was defined and built in the Laboratory of Structures of the University of Granada. Four EDDs were installed in the test model to provide the same seismic resistance than a conventional RC bare frame designed for sustain gravity and seismic loads following current codes. The test model with EDDs was subjected to several seismic simulations with the shaking table of Laboratory of structures of the University of Granada. The test results provide empirical evidences on the efficiency of the EDDs to prevent damage on the main frame and concentrating the inelastic deformations on the EDDs.

Centrifuge modelling-based verification of response spectra design methods for some vulnerable structures

Residential RC framed structures suffered heavily during the 2001 Bhuj earthquake in Gujarat, India. These types of structures also saw severe damage in other earthquakes such as the 1999 Kocaeli earthquake in Turkey and 921 Ji-Ji earthquake in Taiwan. In this paper the seismic response of residential structures was investigated using physical modelling. Idealised soft storey and top heavy, two degrees of freedom (2DOF) portal frame structures were developed and tested on saturated and dry sand models at 25 g using the Schofield Centre 10-m Beam Centrifuge. It was possible to recreate observed field behaviour using these models. As observed in many of the recent earthquakes, soft storey structures were found to be particularly vulnerable to seismic loads. Elastic response spectra methods are often used in the design of simple portal frame structures. The seismic risk of these structures can be significantly increased due to modifications such as removal of a column or addition of heavy water tanks on the roof. The experimental data from the dynamic centrifuge tests on such soft storey or top-heavy models was used to evaluate the predictions obtained from the response spectra. Response spectra were able to predict seismic response during small to moderate intensity earthquakes, but became inaccurate during strong earthquakes and when soil structure interaction effects became important. Re-evaluation of seismic risk of such modified structures is required and time domain analyses suggested by building codes such as IBC, UBC or NEHRP may be more appropriate. © Springer 2006.

Geophysical evaluation methods for buried hill reservoirs in the Jiyang superdepression of the Bohai Bay basin, eastern China

The Jiyang superdepression is one of the richest hydrocarbon accumulations in the Bohai Bay basin, eastern China. Comprehensive seismic methods have been used in buried hill exploration in Jiyang to describe these fractured reservoirs better. Accurate seismic stratigraphic demarcation and variable-velocity mapping were applied to reveal the inner structure of the buried hills and determine the nature of the structural traps more precisely. Based on the analysis of rock properties and the characteristics of well-developed buried hill reservoirs, we have successfully linked the geology and seismic response by applying seismic forward technology. Log-constrained inversion, absorption coefficient analysis and tectonic forward-inversion with FMI loggings were applied to analyse and evaluate the buried hill reservoirs and gave satisfying results. The reservoir prediction was successful, which confirmed that the comprehensive utilization of these methods can be helpful in the exploration of buried hill reservoirs.

裂缝性油气藏储层预测方法研究

In this paper, based on the E & P situation in the oilfield and the theory of geophysical exploration, a series researches are conducted on fracture reservoir prediction technology in general，and it especially focus on some difficult points. The technological series which integrated amplitude preserved data processing、interpretation and its comprehensive application research as a whole were developed and this new method can be applied to the other similar oilfield exploration and development. The contents and results in this paper are listed as follows: 1. An overview was given on the status and development of fracture reservoir estimation technique, compare and analyze those geophysical prediction methods. This will be very helpful to the similar reservoir researches. 2. Analyze and conclude the characters of geologies and well logging response of burial hills fracture reservoir, those conclusions are used to steer the geophysical research and get satisfying results. 3. Forward modeling anisotropy seismic response of fracture reservoir. Quantitatively describe the azimuthal amplitude variation. Amplitude ellipse at each incidence angle is used to identify the fracture orientation. 4. Numerical simulation of structure stress based on finite difference method is carried out. Quantitatively describe and analyze the direction and intensity of fracture. 5. Conventional attributes extraction of amplitude preserved seismic data、attributes with different azimuthal angle and different offset are used to determine the relationship between the results and fracture distribution. 6. With spectrum decomposition method based on wavelet transform， the author disclose the reservoir distribution in space. It is a powerful tool to display its anisotropy. 7. Integrated seismic wave impendence、elastic impendence、spectrum decomposition、attribute extraction、fracture analysis result as a whole to identify and evaluate the fracture reservoir. An optimum workflow is constructed. It is used to practical oil&gas production and good results are obtained. This can indicate the wide foreground of this technique series.