Pleistocene geochronologies for fluvial sedimentary sequences: an archaeologist's perspective

Current models of Pleistocene fluvial system development and dynamics are assessed from the perspective of European Lower and Middle Palaeolithic stone tool assemblages recovered from fluvial secondary contexts. Fluvial activity is reviewed both in terms of Milankovitch-scale processes across the glacial/interglacial cycles of the Middle and Late Pleistocene, and in response to sub-Milankovitch scale, high-frequency, low-magnitude climatic oscillations. The chronological magnitude of individual phases of fluvial activity is explored in terms of radiocarbon-dated sequences from the Late Glacial and early Holocene periods. It is apparent that fluvial activity is associated with periods of climatic transition, both high and low magnitude, although system response is far more universal in the case of the high magnitude glacial/ interglacial transitions. Current geochronological tools do not permit the development of high-resolution sequences for Middle Pleistocene sediments, while localised erosion and variable system responses do not facilitate direct comparison with the ice core records. However, Late Glacial and early Holocene sequences indicate that individual fluvial activity phases are relatively brief in duration (e.g. 10(2) and 10(3) yr). From an archaeological perspective, secondary context assemblages can only be interpreted in terms of a floating geochronology, although the data also permit a reinvestigation of the problems of artefact reworking. Copyright (c) 2005 John Wiley I Sons, Ltd.

Why are some handaxes symmetrical? Testing the influence of handaxe morphology on butchery effectiveness

The morphology of Acheulean handaxes continues to be a subject of debate amongst Lower Palaeolithic archaeologists, with some arguing that many handaxes are over-engineered for a subsistence function alone. This study aims to provide an empirical foundation for these debates by testing the relationship between a range of morphological variables, including symmetry, and the effectiveness of handaxes for butchery. Sixty handaxes were used to butcher 30 fallow deer by both a professional and a non-professional butcher. Regression analysis on the resultant data set indicates that while frontal symmetry may explain a small amount of variance in the effectiveness of handaxes for butchery, a large percentage of variance remains unexplained by symmetry or any of the other morphological variables under consideration.

The unsung heroes

This paper explores the roles played by local collectors, often little-known or rarely remembered, in the compilation of Britain’s Earlier (Lower and early Middle) Palaeolithic record, with reference to the work of C.E. (Charles) Bean at the Lower Palaeolithic site of Broom, and the activities of George Smith and Llewellyn and Mabel Treacher in the Middle Thames Valley. Their collecting practices, publication records, and archaeological knowledge and insights are reviewed, and their impacts assessed with reference to the activities of other contemporary collectors, and the regional archaeological records of the south-west and the Middle Thames. Their archives demonstrate that while the key sites and artefact assemblages sampled by Bean, Smith and the Treachers would not otherwise have been unknown, their work left important legacies in terms of rich artefact assemblages, site archives (Bean), and the long-term monitoring of key sites and fluvial terraces.

From wild horses to domestic horses: a European perspective

There is a period of some 5000 years or so in the prehistory of Europe when horse populations were greatly depleted and perhaps even disappeared in many places. Before this time, during the Upper Palaeolithic, wild horses were common; after, during the Bronze Age, domestic horses were being raised and used across Europe. What happened in between is uncertain, in part because of the sketchy archaeological record. Debates continue as to the origins (the when, where and how) of Europe's domestic horses, including whether horse husbandry dispersed only from habitats favourable to horses on the Eurasian steppes or whether there was local domestication in temperate Europe. This paper reviews the evidence for the transition from wild horses to domestic horses in Europe.

Micro-abrasion of flint artefacts by mobile sediments: a taphonomic approach

Fluvial redeposition of stone artifacts is a major complicating factor in the interpretation of Lower Palaeolithic open-air archaeological sites. However, the microscopic examination of lithic surfaces may provide valuable background information on the transport history of artifacts, particularly in low energy settings. Replica flint artifacts were therefore abraded in an annular flume and examined with a scanning electron microscope. Results showed that abrasion time, sediment size, and artifact transport mode were very sensitive predictors of microscopic surface abrasion, ridge width, and edge damage (p < 0.000). These results suggest that patterns of micro-abrasion of stone artifacts may enhance understanding of archaeological assemblage formation in fluvial contexts

Walking in a winter wonderland? Strategies for Early and Middle Pleistocene survival in mid-latitude Europe

Any occupation of northern Europe by Lower Palaeolithic hominins, even those occurring during full interglacials, must have addressed the challenges of marked seasonality and cold winters. These would have included the problems of: wind-chill and frostbite; duration, distribution and depth of snow-cover; reduced daylight hours; and distribution and availability of animal and plant foods. Solutions can essentially be characterised as a ‘stick or twist’ choice: i.e. year-round presence on a local scale vs. extensive annual mobility. However these options, and the ‘interim’ strategies that lie between them, present various problems, including maintaining core body temperature, meeting the energetic demands of mobility, coping with reduced resource availability and increasing patchiness, and meeting nutritional requirements. The feasibility of different winter survival strategies are explored with reference to Lower Palaeolithic palaeoenvironmental reconstructions and on-site behavioural evidence. Emphasis is placed upon possible strategies for (i) avoiding the excessive lean meat protein problem of ‘rabbit starvation’ (e.g. through exploitation of ‘residential’ species with significant winter body fat and/or by targeting specific body parts, following modern ethnographic examples, supplemented by the exploitation of winter plants); and (ii) maintaining body temperatures (e.g. through managed pyrotechnology, and/or other forms of cultural insulation). The paper concludes with a suggested winter strategy.

Dating WF16: exploring the chronology of a Pre-Pottery Neolithic A settlement in the Southern Levant

A pre-requisite for understanding the transition to the Neolithic in the Levant is the establishment of a robust chronology, most notably for the late Epi-Palaeolithic and Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) periods. In this contribution we undertake a dating analysis of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic site of WF16, southern Jordan, drawing on a sample of 46 AMS 14C dates. We utilise Bayesian methods to quantify an old wood effect to provide an offset that we factor into chronological models for a number of individual structures at WF16 and for the settlement as a whole. In doing so we address the influence of slope variations in the calibration curve and expose the significance of sediment and sample redeposition within sites of this nature. We conclude that for the excavated deposits at WF16 human activity is likely to have started by c. 11.84 ka cal bp and lasted for at least c. 1590 years, ceasing by c. 10.24 ka cal bp. This is marked by a particularly intensive period of activity lasting for c. 350 years centred on 11.25 ka cal bp followed by less intensive activity lasting a further c. 880 years. The study reveals the potential of WF16 as a laboratory to explore methodological issues concerning 14C dating of early Neolithic sites in arid, erosional environments.

Late persistence of the Acheulian in southern Britain in an MIS 8 interstadial: evidence from Harnham, Wiltshire

This paper presents evidence of the discovery of a new Middle Pleistocene site in central southern England, with undisturbed evidence of hominin occupation well-dated to an interstadial towards the end of Marine Isotope Stage 8, c. 250,000 BP. The site consists of a preserved remnant of a river terrace and its alluvial floodplain overlain by chalk-rich bankside deposits, all abutting a Chalk bedrock riverbank. It preserves an area of occupation with activity focused on the riverbank, complemented by occasional activity on a palaeo-landsurface developed on the surface of the alluvial floodplain. Lithic technology at the site consists almost entirely of handaxe manufacture, allowing attribution to an Acheulian industrial tradition. Mammalian and other palaeo-environmental remains are present and associated with the occupation horizons, including large mammal bones showing signs of hominin interference. Dating was based on OSL determinations on the sediments and amino acid racemisation of molluscan remains, supported by biostratigraphic indications. Besides being a rare instance of an undisturbed Palaeolithic palaeo-landscape covering several hectares, the site contributes to wider Quaternary research concerns over the ability of Middle Pleistocene hominins to tolerate colder climatic episodes in higher latitudes, and over settlement history and changing lithic industrial traditions of northwest Europe in relation to climate change and British peninsularity. It is suggested that the Harnham evidence may represent an insular population that had persisted in southern Britain since MIS 10/9, which became locally extinct during the glacial maximum 8.2 marking the end of MIS 8.

Populationsgenetik kupfer- und bronzezeitlicher Bevölkerungen der osteuropäischen Steppe

Mit der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden erstmals prähistorische Bevölkerungsstrukturen in der osteuropäischen Steppe von der Oberthrakischen Tiefebene bis zur Wolga populationsgenetisch untersucht. Mit Multiplex-PCR und 454-Sequencing wurden von 65 kupfer- und bronzezeitlichen Individuen die Hypervariable Region I und 30 Abschnitte der coding region der mitochondrialen DNA analysiert. Außerdem wurden bis zu 20 putativ selektierte autosomale SNPs und ein geschlechtsspezifischer Locus genotypsiert. Zu Vergleichszwecken wurden veröffentlichte prähistorische DNA-Daten aus Westeurasien und moderne DNA-Sequenzen herangezogen. Die Ergebnisse stützen die Annahme, dass frühneolithische Bauern aus Südosteuropa durch demische Diffusion an der Etablierung der Viehwirtschaft in der Steppe beteiligt waren. Die durchweg niedrigen FST-Werte zwischen der frühbronzezeitlichen Jamnaja-Kultur in der Steppe und den aufeinanderfolgenden neolithischen Kulturen Mitteleuropas sprechen für regelmäßige Kontakte. Die der Jamnaja-Kultur nachfolgende Katakombengrabkultur ist von einem hohen Anteil der in nord- und osteuropäischen Jäger/Sammler-Populationen verbreiteten Haplogruppe U4 geprägt. Niedrige FST-Werte zwischen den prähistorischen Steppenpopulationen und der heutigen Bevölkerung Mittel- und Osteuropas weisen auf genetische Kontinuität hin. Die nukleären Genotypenfrequenzen bestätigt dies. Der moderne europäische Genpool lässt sich nach aktuellem Kenntnisstand auf drei Wurzeln zurückführen: indigene Mesolithiker, frühe Bauern aus dem Nahen Osten und eine nordeurasische Komponente jungpalaeolithischen Ursprungs. Letztere könnte vielleicht über die nordpontische Population in das Erbgut spätneolithischer Europäer gelangt sein.

The “Out of Africa Tribe” (II): Paleolithic warriors with big canoes and protective weapons

It is generally difficult to establish a timeline for the appearance of different technologies and tools during human cultural evolution. Here I use stochastic character mapping of discrete traits using human mtDNA phylogenies rooted to the Reconstructed Sapiens Reference Sequence (RSRS) as a model to address this question. The analysis reveals that the ancestral state of Homo sapiens was hunting, using material innovations that included bows and arrows, stone axes and spears. However, around 80,000 y before present, a transition occurred, from this ancestral hunting tradition, toward the invention of protective weapons such as shields, the appearance of ritual fighting as a socially accepted behavior and the construction of war canoes for the fast transport of large numbers of warriors. This model suggests a major cultural change, during the Palaeolithic, from hunters to warriors. Moreover, in the light of the recent Out of Africa Theory, it suggests that the “Out of Africa Tribe” was a tribe of warriors that had developed protective weapons such as shields and used big war canoes to travel the sea coast and big rivers in raiding expeditions.