Water Quality Assessment in Piracicamirim Creek Upstream and Downstream a Sugar and Ethanol Industry Through Toxicity Tests With Cladocerans

An environmental impact study was conducted to determine the Piracicamirim's creek water quality in order to assess the influence of effluents from a sugar industry in this water body. For this, toxicity tests were performed with a water sample upstream and downstream the industry using the microcrustaceans Daphnia magna, Ceriodaphnia dubia and Ceriodaphnia silvestrii as test organisms, as well as physical and chemical analysis of water. Results showed that physical and chemical parameters did not change during the sampling period, except for the dissolved oxygen. No toxicity was observed for D. magna and reproduction of C. dubia and C. silvestrii in both sampling points. Thus, the industry was not negatively impacting the quality of this water body.

Future water quality monitoring--adapting tools to deal with mixtures of pollutants in water resource management.

Environmental quality monitoring of water resources is challenged with providing the basis for safeguarding the environment against adverse biological effects of anthropogenic chemical contamination from diffuse and point sources. While current regulatory efforts focus on monitoring and assessing a few legacy chemicals, many more anthropogenic chemicals can be detected simultaneously in our aquatic resources. However, exposure to chemical mixtures does not necessarily translate into adverse biological effects nor clearly shows whether mitigation measures are needed. Thus, the question which mixtures are present and which have associated combined effects becomes central for defining adequate monitoring and assessment strategies. Here we describe the vision of the international, EU-funded project SOLUTIONS, where three routes are explored to link the occurrence of chemical mixtures at specific sites to the assessment of adverse biological combination effects. First of all, multi-residue target and non-target screening techniques covering a broader range of anticipated chemicals co-occurring in the environment are being developed. By improving sensitivity and detection limits for known bioactive compounds of concern, new analytical chemistry data for multiple components can be obtained and used to characterise priority mixtures. This information on chemical occurrence will be used to predict mixture toxicity and to derive combined effect estimates suitable for advancing environmental quality standards. Secondly, bioanalytical tools will be explored to provide aggregate bioactivity measures integrating all components that produce common (adverse) outcomes even for mixtures of varying compositions. The ambition is to provide comprehensive arrays of effect-based tools and trait-based field observations that link multiple chemical exposures to various environmental protection goals more directly and to provide improved in situ observations for impact assessment of mixtures. Thirdly, effect-directed analysis (EDA) will be applied to identify major drivers of mixture toxicity. Refinements of EDA include the use of statistical approaches with monitoring information for guidance of experimental EDA studies. These three approaches will be explored using case studies at the Danube and Rhine river basins as well as rivers of the Iberian Peninsula. The synthesis of findings will be organised to provide guidance for future solution-oriented environmental monitoring and explore more systematic ways to assess mixture exposures and combination effects in future water quality monitoring.

Impact of Liquid Swine Manure Application and Cover Crops on Ground Water Quality

The primary objective of this project was to determine the impact of appropriate rates of swine manure applications to corn and soybeans based on nitrogen and phosphorus requirements of crops, soil phosphorus accumulation, and the potential of nitrate and phosphorus leaching to groundwater. Another purpose of this long-term experimental study was to develop and recommend appropriate manure and nutrient management practices to producers to minimize the water contamination potential and enhance the use of swine manure as inorganic fertilizer. A third component of this study was to determine the potential effects of rye as a cover crop to reduce nitrate loss to shallow ground water.

Soil quality response to land-use change for sugarcane expansion in Brazil

Globally, increasing demands for biofuels have intensified the rate of land-use change (LUC) for expansion of bioenergy crops. In Brazil, the world\'s largest sugarcane-ethanol producer, sugarcane area has expanded by 35% (3.2 Mha) in the last decade. Sugarcane expansion has resulted in extensive pastures being subjected to intensive mechanization and large inputs of agrochemicals, which have direct implications on soil quality (SQ). We hypothesized that LUC to support sugarcane expansion leads to overall SQ degradation. To test this hypothesis we conducted a field-study at three sites in the central-southern region, to assess the SQ response to the primary LUC sequence (i.e., native vegetation to pasture to sugarcane) associated to sugarcane expansion in Brazil. At each land use site undisturbed and disturbed soil samples were collected from the 0-10, 10-20 and 20-30 cm depths. Soil chemical and physical attributes were measured through on-farm and laboratory analyses. A dataset of soil biological attributes was also included in this study. Initially, the LUC effects on each individual soil indicator were quantified. Afterward, the LUC effects on overall SQ were assessed using the Soil Management Assessment Framework (SMAF). Furthermore, six SQ indexes (SQI) were developed using approaches with increasing complexity. Our results showed that long-term conversion from native vegetation to extensive pasture led to soil acidification, significant depletion of soil organic carbon (SOC) and macronutrients [especially phosphorus (P)] and severe soil compaction, which creates an unbalanced ratio between water- and air-filled pore space within the soil and increases mechanical resistance to root growth. Conversion from pasture to sugarcane improved soil chemical quality by correcting for acidity and increasing macronutrient levels. Despite those improvements, most of the P added by fertilizer accumulated in less plant-available P forms, confirming the key role of organic P has in providing available P to plants in Brazilian soils. Long-term sugarcane production subsequently led to further SOC depletions. Sugarcane production had slight negative impacts on soil physical attributes compared to pasture land. Although tillage performed for sugarcane planting and replanting alleviates soil compaction, our data suggested that the effects are short-term with persistent, reoccurring soil consolidation that increases erosion risk over time. These soil physical changes, induced by LUC, were detected by quantitative soil physical properties as well as by visual evaluation of soil structure (VESS), an on-farm and user-friendly method for evaluating SQ. The SMAF efficiently detected overall SQ response to LUC and it could be reliably used under Brazilian soil conditions. Furthermore, since all of the SQI values developed in this study were able to rank SQ among land uses. We recommend that simpler and more cost-effective SQI strategies using a small number of carefully chosen soil indicators, such as: pH, P, K, VESS and SOC, and proportional weighting within of each soil sectors (chemical, physical and biological) be used as a protocol for SQ assessments in Brazilian sugarcane areas. The SMAF and SQI scores suggested that long-term conversion from native vegetation to extensive pasture depleted overall SQ, driven by decreases in chemical, physical and biological indicators. In contrast, conversion from pasture to sugarcane had no negative impacts on overall SQ, mainly because chemical improvements offset negative impacts on biological and physical indicators. Therefore, our findings can be used as scientific base by farmers, extension agents and public policy makers to adopt and develop management strategies that sustain and/or improving SQ and the sustainability of sugarcane production in Brazil.

Impact of development on availability and quality of ground water in eastern Nassau County, Florida, and southeastern Camden County, Georgia /

Bibliography: p. 106-113.

Economic impact of existing ammonia nitrogen water quality standard, IPCB chapter 3 rule 203(f) /

"July, 1981."

Economic impact of proposed water quality and effluent standard amendments for water in the Sangamon River Basin /

"November 1986."

Relationships between land-use and chemical quality of Illinois streams /

Cover title.

The Influences of land uses and stream modifications on water quality in the streams of the Court Creek Watershed /

"Contract WR 22."

Industrial Discharges of Metals in Kigali, Rwanda, and the Impact on Drinking Water Quality

Rwanda is a landlocked country located in Africa's Central-East Great Lakes region. It has a population of 7.5 million which occupies 26,338 km'. Its population density (285/km') is one of the highest in the world and has prompted fear of a rapid degradation of the ecosystem. There are no central sewer systems in Rwanda. The use of pit latrines and septic tanks is common in urban and rural areas. People still defecate in the fields (World Bank, 1989). Less than half of the urban population is served by a central water supply. The majority of people get their water untreated from rivers that have been polluted by chemicals and human excreta. In and around the capital city of Kigali, there is a concentration of people, farms, and industries which discharge wastewater into the Nyabarongo River and its tributaries. The Nyabarongo River, a tributary of the Nile, empties into the Akagera River which flows into Lake Victoria. Nyabarongo River water is used for drinking water, cooking, bathing, and agriculture in the Kigali area. There has been very little monitoring of the water quality of the Nyabarongo River and of industrial outfalls located on tributaries of the Nyabarongo River. As a first step in understanding the water quality of the Nyabarongo River, wastewater samples were collected in 1993 from industrial outfalls located on tributaries of the Nyabarongo River. Most of the facilities sampled had no wastewater treatment. The impact of these discharges on the water quality of the Nyabarongo River was evaluated.

SYSTEM DYNAMICS MODELING AS A QUANTITATIVE-QUALITATIVE FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: INSIGHTS FOR WATER QUALITY POLICY IN THE GREAT LAKES REGION

Early water resources modeling efforts were aimed mostly at representing hydrologic processes, but the need for interdisciplinary studies has led to increasing complexity and integration of environmental, social, and economic functions. The gradual shift from merely employing engineering-based simulation models to applying more holistic frameworks is an indicator of promising changes in the traditional paradigm for the application of water resources models, supporting more sustainable management decisions. This dissertation contributes to application of a quantitative-qualitative framework for sustainable water resources management using system dynamics simulation, as well as environmental systems analysis techniques to provide insights for water quality management in the Great Lakes basin. The traditional linear thinking paradigm lacks the mental and organizational framework for sustainable development trajectories, and may lead to quick-fix solutions that fail to address key drivers of water resources problems. To facilitate holistic analysis of water resources systems, systems thinking seeks to understand interactions among the subsystems. System dynamics provides a suitable framework for operationalizing systems thinking and its application to water resources problems by offering useful qualitative tools such as causal loop diagrams (CLD), stock-and-flow diagrams (SFD), and system archetypes. The approach provides a high-level quantitative-qualitative modeling framework for "big-picture" understanding of water resources systems, stakeholder participation, policy analysis, and strategic decision making. While quantitative modeling using extensive computer simulations and optimization is still very important and needed for policy screening, qualitative system dynamics models can improve understanding of general trends and the root causes of problems, and thus promote sustainable water resources decision making. Within the system dynamics framework, a growth and underinvestment (G&U) system archetype governing Lake Allegan's eutrophication problem was hypothesized to explain the system's problematic behavior and identify policy leverage points for mitigation. A system dynamics simulation model was developed to characterize the lake's recovery from its hypereutrophic state and assess a number of proposed total maximum daily load (TMDL) reduction policies, including phosphorus load reductions from point sources (PS) and non-point sources (NPS). It was shown that, for a TMDL plan to be effective, it should be considered a component of a continuous sustainability process, which considers the functionality of dynamic feedback relationships between socio-economic growth, land use change, and environmental conditions. Furthermore, a high-level simulation-optimization framework was developed to guide watershed scale BMP implementation in the Kalamazoo watershed. Agricultural BMPs should be given priority in the watershed in order to facilitate cost-efficient attainment of the Lake Allegan's TP concentration target. However, without adequate support policies, agricultural BMP implementation may adversely affect the agricultural producers. Results from a case study of the Maumee River basin show that coordinated BMP implementation across upstream and downstream watersheds can significantly improve cost efficiency of TP load abatement.

Water Demand and Allocation in the Mara River Basin, Kenya/Tanzania in the Face of Land Use Dynamics and Climate Variability

The Mara River Basin (MRB) is endowed with pristine biodiversity, socio-cultural heritage and natural resources. The purpose of my study is to develop and apply an integrated water resource allocation framework for the MRB based on the hydrological processes, water demand and economic factors. The basin was partitioned into twelve sub-basins and the rainfall runoff processes was modeled using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) after satisfactory Nash-Sutcliff efficiency of 0.68 for calibration and 0.43 for validation at Mara Mines station. The impact and uncertainty of climate change on the hydrology of the MRB was assessed using SWAT and three scenarios of statistically downscaled outputs from twenty Global Circulation Models. Results predicted the wet season getting more wet and the dry season getting drier, with a general increasing trend of annual rainfall through 2050. Three blocks of water demand (environmental, normal and flood) were estimated from consumptive water use by human, wildlife, livestock, tourism, irrigation and industry. Water demand projections suggest human consumption is expected to surpass irrigation as the highest water demand sector by 2030. Monthly volume of water was estimated in three blocks of current minimum reliability, reserve (>95%), normal (80–95%) and flood (40%) for more than 5 months in a year. The assessment of water price and marginal productivity showed that current water use hardly responds to a change in price or productivity of water. Finally, a water allocation model was developed and applied to investigate the optimum monthly allocation among sectors and sub-basins by maximizing the use value and hydrological reliability of water. Model results demonstrated that the status on reserve and normal volumes can be improved to ‘low’ or ‘moderate’ by updating the existing reliability to meet prevailing demand. Flow volumes and rates for four scenarios of reliability were presented. Results showed that the water allocation framework can be used as comprehensive tool in the management of MRB, and possibly be extended similar watersheds.

Climate, Land Use and Hydrologic Sensitivities of Stormwater Quantity and Quality in Complex Coastal Urban Watersheds

The study analyzed hydro-climatic and land use sensitivities of stormwater runoff and quality in the complex coastal urban watershed of Miami River Basin, Florida by developing a Storm Water Management Model (EPA SWMM 5). Regression-based empirical models were also developed to explain stream water quality in relation to internal (land uses and hydrology) and external (upstream contribution, seawater) sources and drivers in six highly urbanized canal basins of Southeast Florida. Stormwater runoff and quality were most sensitive to rainfall, imperviousness, and conversion of open lands/parks to residential, commercial and industrial areas. In-stream dissolved oxygen and total phosphorus in the watersheds were dictated by internal stressors while external stressors were dominant for total nitrogen and specific conductance. The research findings and tools will be useful for proactive monitoring and management of storm runoff and urban stream water quality under the changing climate and environment in South Florida and around the world.

Design and deployment of a remote robust sensor network : experiences from an outdoor water quality monitoring network

This paper investigates a wireless sensor network deployment - monitoring water quality, e.g. salinity and the level of the underground water table - in a remote tropical area of northern Australia. Our goal is to collect real time water quality measurements together with the amount of water being pumped out in the area, and investigate the impacts of current irrigation practice on the environments, in particular underground water salination. This is a challenging task featuring wide geographic area coverage (mean transmission range between nodes is more than 800 meters), highly variable radio propagations, high end-to-end packet delivery rate requirements, and hostile deployment environments. We have designed, implemented and deployed a sensor network system, which has been collecting water quality and flow measurements, e.g., water flow rate and water flow ticks for over one month. The preliminary results show that sensor networks are a promising solution to deploying a sustainable irrigation system, e.g., maximizing the amount of water pumped out from an area with minimum impact on water quality.

Development and validation of novel methods for microbial source tracking based on Escherichia coli as an indicator of water quality

Microbial pollution in water periodically affects human health in Australia, particularly in times of drought and flood. There is an increasing need for the control of waterborn microbial pathogens. Methods, allowing the determination of the origin of faecal contamination in water, are generally referred to as Microbial Source Tracking (MST). Various approaches have been evaluated as indicatorsof microbial pathogens in water samples, including detection of different microorganisms and various host-specific markers. However, until today there have been no universal MST methods that could reliably determine the source (human or animal) of faecal contamination. Therefore, the use of multiple approaches is frequently advised. MST is currently recognised as a research tool, rather than something to be included in routine practices. The main focus of this research was to develop novel and universally applicable methods to meet the demands for MST methods in routine testing of water samples. Escherichia coli was chosen initially as the object organism for our studies as, historically and globally, it is the standard indicator of microbial contamination in water. In this thesis, three approaches are described: single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) screening using high resolution melt analysis (HRMA) methods and phage detection development based on CRISPR types. The advantage of the combination SNP genotyping and CRISPR genes has been discussed in this study. For the first time, a highly discriminatory single nucleotide polymorphism interrogation of E. coli population was applied to identify the host-specific cluster. Six human and one animal-specific SNP profile were revealed. SNP genotyping was successfully applied in the field investigations of the Coomera watershed, South-East Queensland, Australia. Four human profiles [11], [29], [32] and [45] and animal specific SNP profile [7] were detected in water. Two human-specific profiles [29] and [11] were found to be prevalent in the samples over a time period of years. The rainfall (24 and 72 hours), tide height and time, general land use (rural, suburban), seasons, distance from the river mouth and salinity show a lack of relashionship with the diversity of SNP profiles present in the Coomera watershed (p values > 0.05). Nevertheless, SNP genotyping method is able to identify and distinquish between human- and non-human specific E. coli isolates in water sources within one day. In some samples, only mixed profiles were detected. To further investigate host-specificity in these mixed profiles CRISPR screening protocol was developed, to be used on the set of E. coli, previously analysed for SNP profiles. CRISPR loci, which are the pattern of previous DNA coliphages attacks, were considered to be a promising tool for detecting host-specific markers in E. coli. Spacers in CRISPR loci could also reveal the dynamics of virulence in E. coli as well in other pathogens in water. Despite the fact that host-specificity was not observed in the set of E. coli analysed, CRISPR alleles were shown to be useful in detection of the geographical site of sources. HRMA allows determination of ‘different’ and ‘same’ CRISPR alleles and can be introduced in water monitoring as a cost-effective and rapid method. Overall, we show that the identified human specific SNP profiles [11], [29], [32] and [45] can be useful as marker genotypes globally for identification of human faecal contamination in water. Developed in the current study, the SNP typing approach can be used in water monitoring laboratories as an inexpensive, high-throughput and easy adapted protocol. The unique approach based on E. coli spacers for the search for unknown phage was developed to examine the host-specifity in phage sequences. Preliminary experiments on the recombinant plasmids showed the possibility of using this method for recovering phage sequences. Future studies will determine the host-specificity of DNA phage genotyping as soon as first reliable sequences can be acquired. No doubt, only implication of multiple approaches in MST will allow identification of the character of microbial contamination with higher confidence and readability.