Environmental technologies, intellectual property and climate change (2013) edited by Abbe Brown

Abbe Brown from the University of Aberdeen, Scotland, is one of the leading international researchers on intellectual property and climate change. She is an intellectual dynamo. Her work brings together a mastery of intellectual property, with a strong interest in innovation theory and practice, and an engagement with public policy issues surrounding human rights, competition policy, and access to knowledge. Abbe Brown has shown a particular aptitude for tackling big ideas and wicked global problems, with intelligence, gusto, insight, and formidable wisdom.

Phylogeographical relationships of Sicilian brown trout and the effects of genetic introgression on morphospace occupation

Genetic introgression of aquaculture stocks in local forms is well documented in many fish species but their evolutionary consequences for the local populations have not been thoroughly explored. Due to its wide geographical range, the existence of many locally adapted forms and the frequent occurrence of introgression of aquaculture stocks in local forms, brown trout represents the ideal system to study the effects of such introgressions. Here, we focus on a group of rivers and streams in Sicily (Italy), and, by using molecular tools, we show that autochthonous populations are probably derived from the Southern Atlantic clade, which is present in the Iberian peninsula and North Africa. Three out of the four studied rivers reveal signs of genetic introgression of domestic stocks. Finally, by using advanced geometric morphometric analyses, we show that genetic introgression produces a higher degree of morphological variability relative to that observed in non-introgressed populations.

From council dog catcher to critical scholar

Carol and I just missed each other in the early 1990s: Carol left Manchester for Australia in 1990, while I an·iv·ed in Manchester from Australia in 1993. Sixteen years later and on the very opposite side of the world, we found ourselves sharing an adjacent room during the 2009 Agri-Food Research Network conference in Auckland. Carol was already an accomplished sociologist; I was a newbie PhD student, presenting on a thesis topic that was only just starting to take shape...

Chemical Characterization of Urinary Pheromones in Brown Antechinus, Antechinus stuartii

In the small dasyurid marsupial, Antechinus stuartii, males exhibit scent-marking in the form of cloacal marking of nesting areas during the breeding season. Females of this species show no such behavior. To characterize the potential male pheromonal scent signal, urine-derived volatiles from sexually active males were analyzed by GC-MS and compared to that of females and a castrated male. More than 10 urinary compounds were identified. A series of homologous methylketones was observed in both males and females, whereas aldehydes were present only in female urine. Urine from the castrate was virtually compound-free except for minute concentrations of a compound tentatively identified as 2,4-dithiapentane. This compound was also found in one of the sexually active males. The GC profiles of the sexually active males contained high concentrations of two pyrazine derivatives and four methylketones that were not detected in the profiles of either females or the castrate. These compounds may influence social communication in the brown antechinus, Antechinus stuartii.

The effect of the cattle tick on growth rates and reproductive rates of Bos indicus cross heifers in north Queensland

Tick infestation occurs over 1.3 x 106 km2 in northern Australia. It has been difficult to estimate the economic effects of ticks due to a lack of information on their effects on growth and reproduction (Anon 1975). 12th Biennial Conference. February 1978. Melbourne, Victoria

Field evaluation of a plant activator, captan, chlorothalonil, copper hydroxide, iprodione, mancozeb and strobilurins for the control of citrus brown spot of mandarin

Brown spot (caused by Alternaria alternata) is a major disease of citrus in subtropical areas of Australia. A number of chemicals, the strobilurins azoxystrobin, trifloxystrobin, pyraclostrobin and methoxycrylate, a plant activator (acibenzolar), copper hydroxide, mancozeb, captan, iprodione and chlorothalonil/pyrimthanil were tested in the field for its control. Over three seasons, trees in a commercial orchard received 16, 14 and 7 fungicide sprays, respectively, commencing at flowering in the first season, and petal fall in the later seasons. In all experiments, the strobilurins used alone, or incorporated with copper and mancozeb, were as effective as, or better than the industry standard of copper and mancozeb alone. The only exception was trifloxystrobin, which when used alone was less effective than the industry standard. Acibenzolar used alone was ineffective. Applying a mixture of azoxystrobin and acibenzolar was found to reduce the incidence of brown spot compared with applying azoxystrobin alone but, in either case, disease levels were not found to be significantly different to the industry standard. Captan, iprodione and chlorothalonil/pyrimthanil were as effective as the industry standard. The incidence and severity of rind damage were significantly lowest in the azoxystrobin, methoxycrylate, iprodione and chlorothalonil/pyrimthanil treatments. Medium and high rates of trifloxystrobin (0.07 g/L, 0 .15 g/L) and pyraclostrobin (0.8 g/L, 1.2 g/L) applied alone were the only treatments found to be IPM-incompatible as shown by the elevated level of scale infection on fruit.

Identification of genes involved with tick infestation in Bos taurus and Bos indicus

Tick resistant cattle could provide a potentially sustainable and environmentally sound method of controlling cattle ticks. Advances in genomics and the availability of the bovine genome sequence open up opportunities to identify useful and selectable genes controlling cattle tick resistance. Using quantitative real-time PCR and the Affymetrix bovine array platform, differences in gene expression of skin biopsies from tick resistant Bos indicus (Brahman) and tick susceptible Bos taurus (Holstein-Friesian) cattle following tick challenge were examined. We identified 138 significant differentially-expressed genes, including several immunological/host defence genes, extracellular matrix proteins, and transcription factors as well as genes involved in lipid metabolism. Three key pathways, represented by genes differentially expressed in resistant Brahmans, were identified; the development of the cell-mediated immune response, structural integrity of the dermis and intracellular Ca 2+ levels. Ca2+, which is implicated in host responses to microbial stimuli, may be required for the enhancement or fine-tuning of transcriptional activation of Ca2+- dependant host defence signalling pathways. Animal Genomics for Animal Health International Symposium, Paris, October 2007: (Proceedings)

Population genetic structure of the brown tiger prawn, Penaeus esculentus, in tropical northern Australia

Eight polymorphic microsatellite loci were analysed in six population samples from four locations of the Australian endemic brown tiger prawn, Penaeus esculentus. Tests of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium were generally in accord with expectations, with only one locus, in two samples, showing significant deviations. Three samples were taken in different years from the Exmouth Gulf. These showed no significant heterogeneity, and it was concluded that they were from a single panmictic population. A sample from Shark Bay, also on the west coast of Australia, showed barely detectable differentiation from Exmouth Gulf (F (ST) = 0 to 0.0014). A northeast sample from the Gulf of Carpentaria showed low (F (ST) = 0.008) but significant differentiation from Moreton Bay, on the east coast. However, Exmouth Gulf/Shark Bay samples were well differentiated from the Gulf of Carpentaria/Moreton Bay (F (ST) = 0.047-0.063). The data do not fit a simple isolation by distance model. It is postulated that the east-west differentiation largely reflects the isolation of east and west coast populations that occurred at the last glacial maximum when there was a land bridge between north-eastern Australia and New Guinea.

Gene expression in the skin of Bos taurus and Bos indicus cattle infested with the cattle tick, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus

The cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus (formerly Boophilus microplus) is responsible for severe production losses to the cattle industry worldwide. It has long been known that different breeds of cattle can resist tick infestation to varying degrees; however, the mechanisms by which resistant cattle prevent heavy infestation are largely unknown. The aim of this study was to determine whether gene expression varied significantly between skin sampling sites (neck, chest and tail region), and whether changes in gene expression could be detected in samples taken at tick attachment sites (tick attached to skin sample) compared with samples taken from non-attachment sites (no tick attachment). We present here the results of an experiment examining the expression of a panel of forty-four genes in skin sections taken from Bos indicus (Brahman) cattle of known high resistance, and Bos taurus (Holstein-Friesian) cattle of known low resistance to the cattle tick. The forty-four genes chosen for this study included genes known to be involved in several immune processes, some structural genes, and some genes previously suggested to be of importance in tick resistance by other researchers. The expression of fifteen gene transcripts increased significantly in Holstein-Friesian skin samples at tick attachment sites. The higher expression of many genes involved in innate inflammatory processes in the Holstein-Friesian animals at tick attachment sites suggests this breed is exhibiting a non-directed pathological response to infestation. Of the forty-four genes analysed, no transcripts were detected in higher abundance at tick attachment sites in the Brahman cattle compared with similar samples from the Holstein-Friesian group, nor difference between attachment site and non-attachment site samples within the Brahman group. The results presented here suggest that the means by which these two cattle breeds respond to tick infestation differ and warrant further investigation.

Field and laboratory evaluations of fungicides for the control of brown spot (Corynespora cassiicola) and black spot (Asperisporium caricae) of papaya in far north Queensland, Australia

Several chemicals including strobilurins (pyraclostrobin and azoxystrobin), triazoles (difenoconazole and tebuconazole), dithiocarbamates (propineb, metiram, ziram and mancozeb) and the phthalimide chlorothalonil were evaluated in three field experiments in north Queensland, Australia, for the control of brown spot (caused by Corynespora cassiicola) and black spot (caused by Asperisporium caricae) of papaya. Chlorothalonil and pyraclostrobin were shown to be more effective than the industry standard, mancozeb, for the control of brown spot. In the black spot experiments, difenoconazole, pyraclostrobin and chlorothalonil used alone or in spray programs were as effective as, or better than, the industry standards, mancozeb and tebuconazole. Plants treated with pyraclostrobin and difenoconazole had more fruit unaffected by black spot (97% and 99% respectively) than plants treated with tebuconazole (51%), mancozeb (20%) and the untreated controls (1%). Laboratory tests also showed that A. caricae was more sensitive to difenoconazole (EC50 of 2ppm) than tebuconazole (EC50 of 14ppm). In 2007, off-label permits were obtained for chlorothalonil for control of brown spot and difenoconazole and chlorothalonil for the control of black spot of papaya.

Laboratory studies on Australian isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae as a biopesticide for the cattle tick Boophilus microplus

Thirty-one isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae were bioassayed against the cattle tick (Boophilus microplus). More than half of the isolates showed a high degree of virulence to ticks. Radial growth curves for growth between 20 °C and 40 °C were obtained for all isolates. This information together with information on virulence will be important for the selection of isolates suitable to kill ticks on the surface of cattle. A biopesticide for cattle ticks must kill ticks rapidly at temperatures within the upper end of most isolates' growth curves. It was also found that the time taken to achieve 100% tick mortality in vitro using a virulent isolate could be halved by applying conidia in a 10% oil emulsion. Scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy were used to investigate and compare the germination and penetration of conidia formulated in aqueous and oil formulations. It was found that conidia in both formulations were able to germinate and produce appressoria on the surface of ticks in less than 11 h. Marked weakness within 26 h, followed by extensive hyphal growth on the cuticle characterised the invasion of ticks by M. anisopliae.

Pen studies on the control of cattle tick (Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus) with Metarhizium anisopliae (Sorokin)

Three field trials were conducted over 12 months to assess the pathogenicity of Metarhizium anisopliae to parasitic stages of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus on dairy heifers under different environmental conditions. Two isolates were selected based on their high optimal growth temperature (30 °C), good spore production characteristics and ability to quickly kill adult engorged ticks in the laboratory. Spores were formulated in an oil emulsion and applied using a motor driven spray unit. Surface temperatures of selected animals were monitored, as were the ambient temperature and relative humidity. Unengorged ticks sampled from each animal immediately after treatment were incubated in the laboratory to assess the efficacy of the formulation and application. Egg production by engorged ticks collected in the first 3 days after treatment was monitored. Side counts of standard adult female ticks were conducted daily, before and after treatment to assess the performance of the fungus against all tick stages on the animals. In each trial the formulation rapidly caused 100% mortality in unengorged ticks that were removed from cattle and cultured in the laboratory. A significant reduction in egg production was recorded for engorged ticks collected in the 3 days post-treatment. However, there was little effect of the formulation on the survival of ticks on cattle, indicating that there is an interaction between the environment of the ticks on the cattle and the biopesticide, which reduces its efficacy against ticks.

Productivity and health effects of anaplasmosis and babesiosis on Bos indicus cattle and their crosses, and the effects of differing intensity of tick control in Australia

Tick fever is an important disease of cattle where Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus acts as a vector for the three causal organisms Babesia bovis, Babesia bigemina and Anaplasma marginale. Bos indicus cattle and their crosses are more resistant to the clinical effects of infection with B. bovis and B. bigemina than are Bos taurus cattle. Resistance is not complete, however, and herds of B. indicus-cross cattle are still at risk of babesiosis in environments where exposure to B. bovis is light in most years but occasionally high. The susceptibility of B. indicus cattle and their crosses to infection with A. marginale is similar to that of B. taurus cattle. In herds of B. indicus cattle and their crosses the infection rate of Babesia spp. and A. marginale is lowered because fewer ticks are likely to attach per day due to reduced numbers of ticks in the field (long-term effect on population, arising from high host resistance) and because a smaller proportion of ticks that do develop to feed on infected cattle will in turn be infected (due to lower parasitaemia). As a consequence, herds of B. indicus cattle are less likely than herds of B. taurus cattle to have high levels of population immunity to babesiosis or anaplasmosis. The effects of acaricide application on the probability of clinical disease due to anaplasmosis and babesiosis are unpredictable and dependent on the prevalence of infection in ticks and in cattle at the time of application. Attempting to manipulate population immunity through the toleration of specific threshold numbers of ticks with the aim of controlling tick fever is not reliable and the justification for acaricide application should be for the control of ticks rather than for tick fever. Vaccination of B. indicus cattle and their crosses is advisable in all areas where ticks exist, although vaccination against B. bigemina is probably not essential in pure B. indicus animals.

Expression of intracellular calcium signalling genes in cattle skin during tick infestation

It is widely acknowledged that changes in intracellular calcium ion (Ca2+) concentration provide dynamic signals that control a plethora of cellular processes, including triggering and mediating host defence mechanisms. In this study, quantitative real-time PCR was used to analyse gene expression of 14 Ca2+ signalling proteins in skin obtained from high tick-resistant (HR) and low tick-resistant (LR) cattle following artificial challenge with cattle tick (Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus). Up-regulation of numerous genes was observed in both HR and LR skin following tick challenge, however substantially higher transcription activation was found in HR tissue. The elevated expression in HR skin of specific Ca2+ signalling genes such as AHNAK, CASQ, IL2, NFAT2CIP and PLCG1 may be related to host resistance. Our data suggest that Ca2+ and its associated proteins might play an important role in host response to ticks and that further investigation is warranted.